
Class JI J .lU.fr 



_* 



The 
Modern Machinist 



A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MODERN 
MACHINE SHOP METHODS 

Especially adapted to the use of Machinists, Apprentices, 
Designers, Engineers and Constructors 

DESCRIBING IN A COMPREHENSIVE MANNER THE MOST 
APPROVED METHODS, PROCESSES AND APPLIANCES EM- 
PLOYED AT THE PRESENT TIME FOR CUTTING, SHAP- 
ING, FITTING, ERECTING AND FINISHING METAL 
WORK, ON THE VISE, FLOOR, LATHE, PLAN- 
ING, SHAPING, SLOTTING, MILLING, DRILL- 
ING, GRINDING, AND OTHER MACHINES, 
BEING WRITTEN IN A THOROUGHLY 
PRACTICAL UP-TO-DATE 

MANNER I • * • " « > ' ' A 



By JOHN T.. USHER,, , 

Fully illustrated by two hundred and fifty- seven entirely 

new and original engravings, being made 

expressly for this book 



FIFTH EDITION 



New York 

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. 

132 NASSAU STREET 

I904 



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COPYRIGHTED, 1895, 
BY 

Norman W. Henley & Co. 



COPYRIGHTED, 1898, 
BY 

Norman W. Henley & Co. 



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LC Control Number 




tmp96 027220 



Preface. 



It has become almost a custom in writing a treatise 
pertaining to " machine-shop practice " to devote a con- 
siderable portion of the contents to a description of the 
machine tools — and the cutting tools employed there- 
with. 

On general principles it may be said that the improve- 
ments in the construction of machine tools for general 
machine-shop work have not been so "marked" as the im- 
proved methods of and appliances for handling the work 
thereon. Hence it is thought that the omission of the us- 
ual description of the ordinary machine tools and the cutting 
tools employed therewith will not be in any way detrimental, 
but that a more useful purpose will be served by endeavor- 
ing to omit as far as practicable anything that has heretofore 
appeared in print on this subject,describing and illustrating 
in the place thereof the means actually employed for per- 
forming the operations on various classes of work in 
many of the most prominent machine shops in this coun- 
try and in England. 



IV PREFACE. 

Modern machine-shop practice, according to the au- 
thor's conception of the term, consists of the methods and 
means of doing work which are or can be employed in 
the majority of machine shops where the facilities consist 
not in " special " but in " ordinary " machine tools and 
appliances; therefore while we do not in the least under- 
estimate the value, advantages and capabilities of " special 
machine tools," we have confined ourselves exclusively to the 
methods and appliances which are usually available or can 
be readily made in any ordinary machine shop, and which 
can be used on or in connection with the ordinary forms 
of machine tools. 

Essentially in showing and describing the means em- 
ployed for doing work of any kind, reference must at all 
times be made directly to the work under consideration. 
But it does not necessarily follow that the means and de- 
vices shown can only be employed for doing that particular 
piece of work. It is a matter of some difficulty to select 
in every instance such parts of work as will show the gen- 
eral utility of the methods and appliances employed for 
doing the work thereon to the best advantage; but great 
care has been exercised in choosing the work and parts 
thereof, to let it be such as is most familiar to the ma- 
chinist in general practice, and such as will readily show 
the applicability of the methods and devices to a wider 
range of machine-shop work. 

In making so many of the descriptive drawings in 
perspective instead of by the ordinary rules of projection, 
an innovation has been introduced which we believe has 
never been carried out on so large a scale before in a work 



PREFACE. V 

of this kind. This has naturally increased the cost and 
labor of compilation considerably, and it is hoped that 
the value of the book is proportionately enhanced thereby, 
inasmuch as a more intelligent and comprehensive idea of 
the subject is gained. 

We wish to acknowledge with thanks the kind assist- 
ance rendered by many prominent firms and mechanics, 
in furnishing sketches of and permission to insert the de- 
vices employed by them in their own practice. 

The Author. 
New York, 1895. 



PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. 

The gratifying success of the previous editions of 
this work has rendered necessary the printing of this, the 
Fifth Edition. 

The publishers hope this edition may prove a valuable 
assistance to its readers and hereby wish to acknowledge 
thanks to the mechanical journals and others who have 
endorsed this work so highly. 

The Publishers. 
New York, 1904. 



Contents. 



CHAPTER I. 
Measuring Instruments. 

PAGE. 

Measuring Instruments used in former times 23 

Recent improvements in graduated "beam calipers " ... 23 
The evolution of "micrometer measuring" machines and 
calipers, and their relation towards the duplication and 

perfection in size of parts in machine construction . . 23 

Inside " micrometer calipers" 24 

The necessity of compensating for the wear of the tools em- 
ployed in machine-shop practicei 26 

The non-adjustability of " snap gauges" 27 

Adjustable "snap gauges " for outside measurements ... 27 

Adjustable "snap gauges " for inside measurements ... 30 
Changes in measuring instruments, to be made and tested by 

the tool-maker 31 

Lapping " snap gauges " to size . 31 

Supposed wear of " snap gauges " — caused by expansion . . 31 
Hardening the arms of the gauges to avoid the above expan- 
sion 32 



CHAPTER II. 
Vise Work. 



Vise work simplified by the improvements in the various 

methods and tools for doing the work » 33 

The ability of the vise hand to simplify his own methods 
and to improve the methods, processes, and work in every 
other branch of the profession 33 

Templates ; templates for various purposes 34 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

JIGS. 



PAGE. 



The uses and possibilities of jigs on vise work 35 

Skilled labor dispensed with by the use of jigs 35 

Classification of jigs for vise work, jigs for the alignment 

and location of parts, with examples of their application . 35 

Filing jigs ; their uses and application 37 



CHAPTER III. 

Vise Work. — Continued. 

Drifts ; their uses, classification, and forms 41 

Drift and drift plug for cutting key ways ( . . 41 

Drift jigs, with example of their application 42 

The methods and principles of fitting keys 45 



CHAPTER IV. 
Vise Work.— Continued. 

INSERTING PIECES IN SEAMS. 

The reasons for and methods of inserting pieces in seams . 48 
Inserting pieces of larger dimensions in metal work, where 

imperfections exist 49 

PEENING AND STRAIGHTENING METAI,. 

Peening metal work to straighten it or change- its shape . 50 

Peening not considered good practice when it can be avoided 50 

Straightening cast-iron work by heating (with examples) . 50 

Advantages of the latter over the former method . . . . 52 



CHAPTER V. 
Chasing. 



The art of chasing 53 

Tools employed in chasing • . 54 

Examples of the application of the tools employed in chasing 54 
Methods of holding the work while it is being " chased " .56 



CONTENTS. IX 

CHAPTER VI 

Erecting. 

PAGE. 

General erecting, and the importance of a thorough knowl- 
edge of the principles and methods involved in the erection 
of machinery and other work 59 

The necessity of having tools adapted to the work, and the 
influence the possession of such tools is likely to exert on 
the standing of the machinist 59 

SETTING OR FINING SHAFTING. 

Lining shafting with a transit level 60 

The inadvisability of depending on an ordinary spirit level 

to secure the accurate alignment of shafting 60 

Lining shafting with a mounted straight-edge and level . . 61 

Lining shafting with a hanging straight-edge and level . . 62 
Lining shafting by means of a water level and distance 

pieces fixed on the floor of the shop 63 

Testing the alignment of shafting after the pulleys and belts 

are all in position 64 

To align shafting that has to be extended from one room or 

building to another 65 

Setting machinery in position, with regard to the work to be 

performed thereon 66 

Moving heavy machinery 67 

Setting machinery permanently on its foundation .... 69 



CHAPTER VII. 
Erecting. — Continued. 

General principles of erecting, as exemplified in the erection 

of traction engine work 70 

The similarity in the methods pursued in erecting traction and 

locomotive engines 70 

Methods of obtaining the center lines on the boilers, by and 

from which the various parts are to be fitted and located . 70 

Fitting and aligning the cylinder brackets 74 

Marking and cutting the holes in which the bolts are inserted, 
which hold the various parts to the boiler, and the 
tools employed therefor 76 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGB. 

Fitting on the cylinders 78 

Fitting the crank-shaft bracket 78 

Babbitting the crank-shaft bearings and the various methods 
and appliances employed for securing the correct align- 
ment of the crank-shaft 79 

Reaming the crank-shaft bearings . 85 

The various methods and appliances employed for locating and 

aligning the parts of the " propelling " mechanism ... 86 



CHAPTER VIII. 

ErKCTing. — Continued. 

Erecting, as exemplified in the erection of stationary engine 

work 94 

Further development of the methods and principles already 
shown, as applied in the construction of a higher grade 

of work 94 

The necessity of laying out castings that have to be machined 
to ascertain if there is a sufficiency of metal on all the parts 
and surfaces to admit of their being cleaned or trued up 94 
Laying off the bed of a stationary engine, in the rough. . . 95 

Solid and adjustable trams 97 

Locating and aligning the crank-shaft by means of jigs from 
the guides, guide- ways and other parts of the engine bed, 
with examples of the most approved methods for securing 

the same ends 98 

Aligning the valve rods and valve rod slides by means of jigs . 102 
Boring and facing engine beds by means of a "boring rig" . . 102 
Expanding the babbitt in the crank-shaft bearings .... 105 
Aligning the parts of vertical engines by jigging 106 



CHAPTER IX. 
Erecting .—Con tin ued. 

Device for driving cross-heads and piston-rods apart .... 109 
Balancing pulleys and rotary parts of machinery no 



CONTENTS. XI 

PAGE. 

Counter-balancing pulleys on the line shaft in 

Balancing armatures, beater-drums for threshing machines, 

etc 112 

The adaptation of jigs in the erection of machinery in general 113 



CHAPTER X. 
Planing, Shaping, Slotting. 

Principles and methods of chucking work 115 

The springing of work by improper methods of chucking . .116 
Method of chucking thin work 117 



CHAPTER XI. 
Planing, Shaping, Slotting. — Cmtinued. 

CHUCKING TAPER WORK. 

Simple method of chucking taper work ina" parallel-jawed " 

chuck 119 

Improved form of" monitor-chuck " for general chucking pur- 
poses ... 120 

Examples of chucking work on the above chuck ..... 121 



CHAPTER XII. 
Planing, Shaping, Slotting. — Continued. 

SUPPLEMENTARY CHUCKING-PLATES. 

The employment of supplementary chucking-plates, to avoid 
the necessity of having to release and re-chuck the work 
when one surface has been operated on 123 

Classification and forms of supplementary chucking-plates . 123 

Reasons for compounding, and the avoidance of the same by 

pivoting 124 

Planing key seats in crank-shafts, and methods of securing the 

accurate location of the same 126 



Xll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Planing, Shaping, Slotting. — Continued. 

CHUCKING ENGINE BEDS, CYLINDERS, ETC., FOR PLANING. 

PAGE. 

Chucking the frames of vertical engines 129 

Chucking the beds of horizontal engines, for planing the 

under side or base 130 

Cutting key ways on the planer and slotter 131 

Planing work between centers 133 

Adjustable parallel to be used in connection with planer cen- 
ters 133 

Angle-plate, to be used in the same connection 134 

CONCAVE AND CONVEX PLANING. 

Methods and appliances used in planing " concaved " or "con- 
vexed " surfaces '. . 134 

Principles on which the above appliances are based .... 136 



CHAPTER XIV. 
Planing, Shaping, Slotting. — Continued. 

Gauge for planing V's and V-ways 137 

Facilitating the adjustment of planer tools by means of a grad- 
uated planer head 139 

Stud bolts and nuts — an improvement over the ordinary solid- 
headed bolts for planing and other machines 139 



CHAPTER XV. 
Milling. 



modern milling practice. 

The important position occupied by the milling machine . . 142 

Selecting a machine with a view to its adaptability for the 

work to be done thereon 142 

Improvements made in " milling practice " by individual 

operators and superintendents 143 

How the " ordinary practice " of one individual or concern 
would be considered " advanced practice " by other indi- 
viduals or concerns 144 



CONTENTS. Xlll 

PAGE. 

"Double gang" milling, as exemplified in milling a lathe 

bed by means of two rows or gangs of mills 145 

11 Facet " and " surface " milling 147 

Inclining the vertical spindle (arbor) to prevent the cutters 
from dragging on the work after their circuit of cutting 
contact has been completed 148 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Miujng. — Continued. 

"END" OR " FACK " MIUJNG. 

Inefficient methods of chucking 149 

Monitor-chucks the best for end milling 150 

Double " end " or face milling 151 

Ordinary methods of double " end " and " face " milling . .151 

Improved methods of external double face milling .... 152 

Ordinary methods of internal double face milling 153 

Improved methods of internal double face milling .... 155 
Internal double face milling, by means of cutters arranged 
and operated in advance of the main spindle of the 

machine 158 

The prevailing practice of the modern milling machine 

operator 161 

Capacity and capabilities of the milling machine 161 

Improvements and progress in milling machine practice . . 162 



CHAPTER XVII. 

Lathe Work. 

The ordinary and special forms of the lathe 163 

The lathe the most important of all metal-cutting machine 

tools 163 

What constitutes the most ' ' advanced ' ' practice of the 

present day 163 

What constitutes the most " approved " practice 163 



XIV CONTENTS. 



Capacity and possibilities of the lathe, and the improvements 

for expediating the processes and operations thereon . . 164 

The inexpensive nature of such improvements, and the advan- 
tages to be derived therefrom 164 

Cutting speeds for metals, and the conditions upon which the 

speeds are dependent 165 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
Lathe) Work. — Continued. 

BORING TOOLS. 

Improved form of cutter-bore for boring „ . . 168 

Boring and drilling attachments for lathes ....... 170 

Cutter-heads for boring-bars, and the objections existing in the 

ordinary forms 171 

Improved form of cutter-head, wherein all the above objec- 
tions are obviated 174 

Boring spherical holes, and the tools and methods employed 
therefor 174 



CHAPTER XIX. 
LaThk Work. — Continued. 

Lining up lathe-spindles 178 

Boring and turning work on the monitor-chuck . . . . .179 
Ordinary methods of chucking work on the face-plate of the 
lathe that has two or more surfaces to be operated on, 
which stand at different angles, but with their axes on 

the same horizontal plane 179 

Simple method of chucking the work so that the different sur- 
faces can be operated on at one setting on the supplement- 
ary chucking-plate, but a different setting on the angle- 
plate 180 

Improving on the above method and securing greater precis- 
ion by chucking the work on a monitor-chuck .... 180 
Examples of chucking connecting-rod brasses, cross-heads, 
elbows, globe, gate and check- valve boxes on the monitor- 
chuck for, boring and turning 181 



CONTENTS. XV 

CHAPTER XX. 
Lathe Work.— Continued. 

PAGE. 

Simultaneous boring and turning, as exemplified by boring 
and turning a casting from which packing rings are cut at 
one operation 186 

Double-tongued " parting or cutting-off " tool 187 

Method of compressing and chucking packing rings for boring 

and turning 189 

Improved method of expanding the linings of babbitted bear- 
ings and copper-lined cylinders, and the tools employed 
therefor 192 



CHAPTER XXI. 
I^athe; Work. — Continued. 

Support for live-spindles when turning and boring heavy 

work chucked on the face-plate 194 

Extending the capacity of a face-plate to take in work of a 

greater diameter than itself 196 

SLIDING I.ATHE CHUCKS. 

Sliding lathe chuck employed as an adjustable chucking 
arbor, for turning pulleys, eccentrics and work of a 
similar nature 196 

Improved form of sliding lathe chuck employed (in addition 
to holding the above classes of work) for holding tem- 
plates, jigs, die plates and other work requiring to be 
accurately spaced and bored 198 

Turning work on the above chuck 199 

Spacing and drilling holes on the above chuck, and methods 

of holding and locating the work 199 

Methods to be pursued for accurately spacing the holes in 

hardened die-plates 199 



XVI CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XXII. 

Lathe Work. — Continued. 

PAGE. 

Turning curved surfaces 203 

Determining the nature of the former turning appliances, by 
the space in which the turning tools are to operate, the 
manner in which they can be attached to the lathe, and 

the form of the surface to be turned 203 

Former appliance for turning car axles 204 

Former appliance for turning pulleys, etc 204 

Spherical turning principles on which the tools operate . . 208 
Examples of spherical turning 209 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



Lathe Work. — Continued. 



Lathe work, as exemplified in the turning and boring of 
pulleys 211 

The practice of turning work on a driven arbor objectionable . 212 
Turning work on an arbor which is made a sliding fit in the 

bore (preferable) . 212 

Face-plate arbor screwed onto the nose of the live-spindle, to 

secure greater rigidity and avoid the jarring in turning the 

work ; operated on the same principle 213 

The same form of arbor as arranged to be held between the 

lathe centers 214 

Method of chucking the work on the above arbors . . . .215 
Simultaneous boring and turning, as applied in boring and 

turning pulleys 215 

Examples of the appliances and methods employed therefor . 215 



CONTENTS. x V i i 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

Lathe Work.— Continued. 

PAGE. 

Advanced practice of turning and boring as exemplified in the 

turning and construction of cranks 221 

Difficulties experienced in turning solid-cranks, and how they 

can be minimized or obviated . .221 

The important operations involved in the construction of 

built-up cranks ' 224 

Making " driving fits" 224 

Methods of" roughing out "the "crank-pin holes" in "crank 

discs" 224 

Principles governing the accurate "shrinking" together of 

machine parts 225 

Rules and allowances for making ' ' shrinkage fits " . . . . 227 
Method of boring (finishing) the holes in cranks for the crank- 
pin after the crank has been fitted and keyed on the shaft 228 

Shrinking the cranks together 229 

Shrinking the crank-pins in, in single cranks 231 

Re-turning crank-pins that are worn or bent out of truth with- 
out removal from the crank 232 



CHAPTER XXV. 
Lathe Work. — Continued. 

Methods of chucking the cylinders for ' 'steam engines, ' ' pumps, 
ammonia and "air-compressors," and other machinery, for 
boring and turning - . . 234 

Boring and turning the cylinders and guides of vertical engines 

(frames and cylinders combined) 239 



XV111 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

Lathe Work. — Continued. 

PAGE. 

Ordinary methods of turning and boring taper work, and rules 

for setting the lathe to turn tapers 244 

Simplified methods of setting the lathe to turn and bore tapers 246 

Simple taper- turning attachment 249 

Device for adjusting the tool to the cut, in the tool-post . . 250 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

Lathe Work. — Continued. 

Turning " formed" work 252 

Turning and boring "elliptic" forms 253 

Turning a cam-shaft 255 

" Cam " turning 257 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 



Lathej Work — Continued 



Boring and turning bushings 259 

Hollow spindle-lathes 262 

Arranging lathes in " series " or " gangs " on one lathe bed 263 

Making provision for turning " extra long " work .... 263 



CONTENTS. Xix 

CHAPTER XXIX 
Lathe Work. — Continued. 

PAGE 

Circular turning tools 266 

Examples of turning by means of circulancutters or turning 

tools 266 

Circular chaser or threading tools 268 

Box-tools — fitted on the tail-spindle of the lathe 270 

Box-tools — fitted on the slide-rest . . 270 

Box-tools — with circular cutters .... 271 



CHAPTER XXX. 

Lathe Work. — Continued. 

Measuring Instruments — for use on the lathe 275 

Making provision in plug gauges for the escape of air . . . 277 
Improved form of "ring" or "collar" gauge, "disc" gauges . 279 
Handy collar-tram gauge 281 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

Items of Interest. 

Odd-legged calipers, and their uses 282 

Measuring the bore of a semicircular bearing by means of the 

" odd-legged calipers " 282 

Measuring other forms of vise and machine work — by the 

same means 284 

Accurate spacing and measurement of holes — by the same and 

other means 284 

Test-bar — for measuring purposes 286 



XX CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XXX T I 
Items oe Interest.— Continued. 

PAGE. 

A convenient form of parallel or distance piece for face-plates 287 

Device for making helical springs . . . ' 288 

Fluting taps and reamers in the lathe 289 

Grinding 291 

Grinding on the lathe 291 

Regulation style of grinder head for the lathe ..'.... 293 

Universal grinding attachment for lathes 293 

How to change the shape of and make grinding wheels of 

small diameter 294 

How to fasten a grinding wheel on the arbor 295 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

Items oe INTEREST. — Continued. 

Grinding plane surfaces 297 

Advantages of grinding over other methods of shaping and 

finishing work 297 

Surfacing device . . . 298 

Objections to high velocity grinding . 298 

How these objections can be avoided 300 

Horizontal surfacing machine 300 

Grinding parallel work 301 

Grinding the edges of thin work 303 

"Lead-Laps" • 304 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 
Items of Interest.— Continued. 

POLISHING— BY GRINDING. 

Different means employed for polishing 306 

Charging (coating) the wheels and belts with emery, etc. . . 307 
Buffing wheels 308 



CONTENTS. XXI 

CHAPTER XXXV. 
Drilling. 

PAGE. 

A knowledge of tools necessary to the intelligent running of a 

machine 309 

Hand versu s machine ground drills 310 

Requirements for jigging work to be drilled 311 

Locating holes without jigs 311 

Singlejigs 312 

Double or compound jigs 313 

Index 315 



The Modern Machinist 



CHAPTER I. 



Measuring Instruments. 

In former times the only measuring instruments 
employed were the measuring bars, graduated rules 
(or scales), and graduated beam calipers. The latter 
being in all probability among the oldest measuring 
instruments with which we are acquainted; and the 
subsequent improvement of the same by the addition 
of the " Vernier" adjustment and its adaptation to 
inside measurements render this tool one of the most 
accurate and reliable tools which can be used for this 
purpose. 

The evolution of the micrometer calipers and 
measuring machines was the greatest advance ever 
made towards the duplication and perfection in size 
of parts in machine construction. 

It was some time after the micrometer calipers for 
outside measurements had been in general use before 
micrometer calipers for inside measurements were 
introduced, and it took a still longer time to place 
them successfully upon the market, as micrometer 
calipers for inside measuring purposes were not as 
favorably received as were those for outside measur- 
ing purposes. 



24 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

As most, if not all, of the micrometer calipers for 
both outside and inside measurements have been pro- 
fusely illustrated in the trade journals and in books 
and catalogues, and as they are in constant use in 
most workshops, we shall mention such only as have 
not been shown and described elsewhere, 

INSIDE MICROMETER CALIPERS. 

The inside micrometer caliper shown at Figures 1 
and 2 was designed by the author for his own use 
several years ago, and subsequently patented but 
never placed on the market. 




Fig. 1. 

Figure 1 is a side elevation half longitudinal sec- 
tion of the instrument, and Figure 2 is a similar eleva- 
tion of the same with longer (plain) tail-piece. 

The instrument as shown in Figure 1 consists of a 
cylindrical body A, which is bored and threaded at 
B to receive the tail-piece E and the chuck screw C. 
The body A is also threaded on the inner end, on the 
outside at G, to receive the adjusting nut J (which is 
cylindrical and of the same diameter as the body A, 
thereby serving to steady the sleeve K), and on the 
inside at G' to receive the measuring screw F. The 
body has on the inner end two radial cuts or slits H, 
to admit of adjustment for wear on the measuring 
screw F in an obvious manner by means of the adjust- 
ing screw J. The sleeve K is screwed onto the 



MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. 



25 



measuring screw F, and held in a fixed relation with 
the measuring screw and terminals by means of the 
nut M, which arrangement permits of adjustment for 
wear on the measuring terminals. The chuck nut C 
has a radial cut or slit on one side, which serves to 
permit of the bore of the chuck to collapse somewhat 
when the screw is forced into the threaded bore B, 
thus forming, when used in connection with a plain 



A F 




tail-piece E (Figure 2), a chuck. The bore of the chuck 
screw C is likewise extended through the shoulder of 
the body A, as shown near G (Figure 1), and nearly 
throughout the entire length of the measuring screw 
F, as shown at N. This permits of a plain tail-piece 
E (Figure 2) being used instead of a tail-piece E with 
the location collar on it, as shown at Q (Figure 1), 
when the instrument is to be used for other than 



26 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

standard measurements. The graduations on the 
body A and the sleeve K are of the usual form. 

In using the above instrument for standard 
measurements, the tail-pieces with collars on are used, 
the capacity of the instrument being increased or de- 
creased by means of the measuring screw, and by the 
insertion of longer or shorter tail-pieces, as required. 
But when making shrinkage, tight or loose fits, where 
a stated allowance for the same is merely required, 
then the straight tail-piece may be used, the tail- 
piece being made to slide in or out to the size re- 
quired and held by compression by merely tightening 
up the chuck screw C, the adjustment to correct size 
being made by the measuring screw. 

ADJUSTABLE SNAP GAUGES FOR STANDARD MEASURE- 
MENTS. 

The absolute necessity of some arrangement for 
compensating for the wear of the various tools em- 
ployed in machine-shop practice has engaged the 
attention of the machinists in all branches of the 
profession. In the case of taps and reamers, the neces- 
sity of some means of adjustment was seen many 
years ago, and was promptly met by the introduction 
of expanding taps and reamers, which filled the re- 
quirements of the case in every particular in a very 
satisfactory manner. We have adjustable mandrels 
(arbors), calipers, and other tools too numerous to 
mention ; in fact, nearly every tool we use is adjust- 
able in some way or other. 

The standard snap gauges now so extensively used 
may very justly be said to be as far ahead of any and 
all other forms of measuring instruments for general 
use in the workshop for ensuring absolute uniformity 
and accuracy of machine parts as the micrometer 
caliper is ahead of the ordinary two-legged caliper. 



MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. 



27 



But snap gauges appear to be an exception to the 
rule of supplying a means of adjustment for wear, no 
provision whatever being made for this purpose 
in general practice, or in any instrument now on the 
market, and consequently when such adjustment is 
necessary the gauge must in most cases be annealed 




Fig. 3. 

and closed or expanded and then rehardened and 
ground or lapped to size. Some years ago, Mr. A. D. 
Pentz introduced in his own practice (and subse- 
quently described and illustrated in the " Iron Age ") 
an adjustable snap gauge, which for simplicity and 
accuracy probably could not be improved upon. 




Fig. 4. 



Fig. 5, 



The construction of this gauge is shown in Figures 
3, 4 and 5. Figure 3 is a side elevation of the gauge 
(single ended). Figure 4 is a side elevation of the 
gauge (double ended in this case, in the form of a 
limit gauge). Figure 5 is an end elevation of either 
or both of the above. 



28 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

As shown in the figures, the gauge consists of a 
body A and two or four (for single or double gauge) 
pieces or measuring terminals B B r and C C, which 
are bolted to the parallel surfaces a a' and bb' of 
the body A by means of the counter sunk screws 
(plainly shown by the dotted lines). 

The beauty of this form of gauge is that the sur- 
faces a a' and bb' are made parallel with each other 
and of the same distance apart as the gauge is to be, 
thereby making it possible to always maintain or re- 
store the standard of the gauge, for when the measur- 
ing surfaces have become worn beyond the allowable 
limit it is only necessary to remove the pieces B B' or 
CC from the body A and grind or lap the surfaces ab 
or a' b' of these pieces until they are true again, and 
then replace them on the body A and the gauge is 
adjusted to standard. 




Fig. 6. 

Figure 6 shows side elevation of an adjustable snap 
gauge which is easy to maintain at or restore to the 
given standard. 

The arms of the body A (the body may be of any 
pattern desired) terminate in the form of hubs ; these 
hubs B W are bored out parallel with each other and 
faced off on both ends of the hubs. The jaws CC 



MEASURING ENSTRUMENTS. 



29 



which form the measuring terminals are turned and 
hardened and inserted in the hubs B B'. The flanges 
a a' are made either round or square as preferred. 
As the jaws may be sprung somew T hat in hardening, a 
slight allowance is made for grinding or lapping the 
gauge to size after they are inserted in the hubs. The 
collar nut bb'^'is made preferably round, with 
holes drilled therein for a pin or spanner wrench, to 
prevent any possibility of the gauge being tampered 
with. When it is necessary to adjust the gauge for 
wear, very thin metallic or paper washers are inserted 
between the flange C a and the hub B, and if neces- 
sary the gauge is relapped or ground to size. This 
instrument can be used for different sizes by inserting 
jaw r s of such thickness as to reduce the gauge to the 
size required. 




Fig. 7. 

Another form of adjustable snap gauge is shown in 
Figure 7. The body A (which is of an ordinary pat- 
tern) is slotted at B to receive the distance piece or 
liner C, and drilled and tapped at D for the binding 
screw E. When the slot B has been cut the jaws are 
sprung apart somewhat to create a continual tendency 
to close together, and the liner C is fitted closely in 
the slot B, while the jaws are in this position, after 
w T hich the liner is hardened and inserted in the slot 
and the binding screw tightened up. The jaws are 
then ground and lapped to size. 



30 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



To adjust the gauge for wear the liner is taken out 
of the slot and reduced in thickness as much as re- 
quired ; it is then replaced, and, if necessary, the jaws 
are relapped to size. 



Fig. 8. 



Fig. 9. 



Figures 8 and 9 represent an adjustable snap gauge 
for internal measurements, Figure 8 showing a side 
and Figure 9 an end elevation of the instrument. 
The blade B is inserted in the body A in a dove- 
tailed slot, the bottom of which is an inclined plane. 
When the instrument is worn below size it is only 
necessary to drive the blade B further into the slot, and 
by that means enlarge the diameter of the gauge as 
much as required. 




Fig. 10. 

Figure 10 represents another form of adjustable 
snap gauge for internal use. A slot B is cut in the 
body A, two adjusting screws C C r are inserted in the 
body on one side of the slot and a binding screw D on 
the opposite side. To adjust the gauge the screw D is 
loosened and the screws C C are tightened up until 



MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. 31 

the gauge is expanded as much as required. After 
expanding either of the above gauges they should, if 
necessary, be reground to size. 

Whenever any change is made in an adjustable 
snap gauge it should always be made by the tool- 
maker, and the accuracy of the gauge should be tested 
after each change. 

Any of the above types of snap gauges may be 
made in the form of double gauges and combined so 
as to form two gauges of different diameters, or to 
make one end for internal and the other end for ex- 
ternal measurements. None of the foregoing adjust- 
able snap gauges are patented and can, therefore, be 
made and used by any one desiring to do so. 

Experience has shown that when a snap gauge is 
ground to size the measuring surfaces present a mass 
of minute prominences and depressions owing to the 
constant jarring or vibrating of the grinding machine 
or appliance, and that if, instead of grinding the gauges 
to size, a slight allowance is made for lapping them to 
size to remove all the above-mentioned prominences, 
the gauge will last much longer than if finished by 
grinding^ alone. In many instances where snap 
gauges for external measurements are supposed to be 
worn, it will be found that this effect has been pro- 
duced by a process analogous to peening caused by push- 
ing the gauge over or onto the work until the gauge 
strikes the work at some point of the inner circle or 
arch of the arms and body of the gauge with force 
sufficient to cause a slight bruise or indentation at 
that point, which, when often repeated, has a ten- 
dency to spread the arms apart and enlarge the 
diameter of the gauge, the same as though it had been 
peened. 

This can readily be proven by filing all around the 
inner arch of the gauge, when on the tension being 
relieved; the gauge will spring back again to its 



32 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

original diameter. The tendency to enlarge the di- 
ameter of outside snap gauges by this means can only 
be avoided by hardening the gauges to a point beyond 
the inner arch, or as far as the dotted line F shown 
in Figure 7. For a further consideration of instru- 
ments used for standard measurements we would refer 
the reader to " Standard Measurements in Machine 
Construction/' by Mr. Fred J. Miller, "American 
Machinist," issues of January 7th and 21st, 1892. 



33 



CHAPTER II. 



Vise Work. 



As in all other branches of the machinist trade, that 
of the vise workman has been very much simplified 
by the invention and introduction of new and im- 
proved tools and appliances. Among the most im- 
portant of which may be mentioned the try squares 
and straight edges with hardened edges, all the 
improved measuring instruments (to which reference 
has previously been made), hardened filing jigs, jigs 
for locating and ensuring the accurate alignment of 
machine parts, jigs for locating and drilling holes, 
and other purposes. To the above may be added the 
superior product of the milling and other special 
machines, which in many cases entirely obviate the 
necessity of vise work of any form whatever, and in 
many other cases the machines leave the surfaces of 
the work so nearly finished that the vise work required 
thereon may be said to be merely of a corrective na- 
ture, i.e., to correct any slight inaccuracies left by the 
machines. Notwithstanding all the above-mentioned 
improvements, the vocation of the vise hand has not 
become obsolete in any sense whatever, but has, on the 
contrary, assumed a still more important position in 
constructive mechanics, for by the intelligent applica- 
tion of the tools and devices at his command he is 
enabled not only to simplify his own methods, but to 
expedite and facilitate the methods, processes and 



34 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

operations of the workman and work in every other 
branch of the profession. 

TEMPLATES. 

Templates are and may be used with considerable 
success on a large variety of work in the machine shop 
and also in the blacksmith and boilersmith shops, and 
as these useful appliances are nearly always made by 
the vise hand, a knowledge of their uses and applica- 
tion is a matter of some importance. 

In making templates for the laying out and dupli- 
cation of work and of parts, the template should be 
made to fulfill the purpose intended, that is, there 
should be depressions, or lugs, whenever it is pos- 
sible, at intervals, which fit into or over the piece it is 
to be used on, at such points as will not be subse- 
quently changed by any future process or operation to 
which the piece may be subjected. The template 
should be so arranged as to be used for laying out as 
many surfaces and points as can be practically covered 
by one template, and it should be made also with a 
view to using it as a test gauge after the various 
operations have been completed on the piece it is used 
upon. By this means it is possible to duplicate work 
within a reasonable degree of accuracy, in most cases, 
sufficiently close to answer all practical purposes. 

Templates for locomotive-engine frames are usually 
connected together by means of iron or steel bars of 
any thickness or width desired, and templates for fire- 
engine and hose-carriage frames and similar purposes 
are cut out in one piece from sheet iron or steel. For 
other purposes templates may be and are made in 
different ways to suit the requirements of the case. In 
some cases they may be so arranged that they can be 
used for both male and female templates, thereby 
avoiding the necessity of making two templates. 



VISE WORK. 35 

Templates of one kind or another may be seen in 
nearly every establishment doing machine or iron 
work, and a study of their various uses and require- 
ments w r ill well repay any time spent thereon. 

JIGS. 

The use of jigs on vise work does not appear to 
have been so extensively cultivated as in other 
branches of the trade, or even so much as their utility 
and merits would seem to warrant. 

The accurate admeasurement of distances and align- 
ment of holes, surfaces, and parts, can readily be 
secured in designing and making jigs of any kind, 
and these features may usually be combined so as to 
expedite the process the jig is intended to facilitate, 
but there should always be an entire absence of com- 
plication ; in fact, the designer should always aim to 
make the jig in such a manner that it will require no 
effort whatever on the part of the operator to perform 
the work the jig has to be used upon. So successfully 
have these objects been accomplished in modern prac- 
tice, that by the use of jigs skilled labor has been 
entirely dispensed with in many instances, and in 
other instances with skilled help the production has 
been increased to a surprising extent. Jigs adapted 
for vise work may very properly be divided into three 
classes, viz. jigs used for the purpose of facilitating 
and ensuring the accurate alignment and the locating of 
one or more parts of the work with some other part or 
parts ; drilling jigs, and filing jigs. 

Jigs used for the alignment and locating of 
parts should be made in such manner that when 
the part is fitted on or into the jig no subsequent 
fitting will be required w T hen the part is assembled 
with other parts on the machine, or whatever it 
belongs to. 






36 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



In Figures 11 and 12 is shown side and end eleva- 
tion of a jig (with rod in position) for lining up con- 
necting rods for engines. 



c 



^rtiP 1 . 



ZZJ 



JE 



-*-&f> 



&q-> 



i 



Fig. 12. 

A A shows the connecting rod; 
B B a base plate, into which is fixed 
a wrist pin C C, upon which the con- 
necting rod is suspended ; D D a 
straight edge laid across the butt 
end of the connecting rod. To line 
up the rod laterally, the rod is 
placed on the wrist pin C C, the 
brasses are then tightened up about 
the same as they would be on the 
engine. A straight edge is then 
laid across the butt end of the rod 
at any desired point, as shown at 
D D. The distance is then measured 
from the base plate to either the 
upper or under side of the straight 
edge (as shown at EEE) by means 
of calipers or a surface gauge. The 
longitudinal alignment of the rod is 
secured by first measuring the dis- 
tance from the base plate to either the upper or 
under side of the rod, as shown at F F, and then after 
inverting .the rod upon the wrist pin C C, remeasuring 
the distance in the same way and at the same point. 
If the distances measure the same with the rod in both 
positions, the rod is in line, but if not, then the 



vise work:. 37 

brasses must be scraped or filed until it is in line. 
The other end of the rod is lined up in the same way, 
by substituting a wrist pin the right size for the 
brasses, or by having the plate long enough to accom- 
modate a wrist pin for each end of the rod. 

In like manner every part of any engine or machine 
can be fitted throughout, ready for assembling by the 
use of properly designed jigs, and more expeditious 
and accurate results obtained by their intelligent 
application than by any other method. 

FILING JIGS. 

A filing jig is an appliance used for the purpose of 
facilitating the process of filing the surfaces of machine 
parts and other articles to the shape required, thereby 
ensuring uniformity and accuracy of shape and size. 

They are used principally on work and surfaces 
having an irregular shape or form ; and on those sur- 
faces of larger and heavier work to which they are 
adapted, or which are difficult, or inaccessible by the 
ordinary methods. 

Among other things on which filing jigs have 
been successfully used are links for reversing gears, 
gridiron valves, cams, connecting rods and straps, 
gun and sewing machine parts, etc. In the author's 
opinion, it will usually pay to make a filing jig for 
almost anything upon which there is much filing or 
hand- work, if six or more pieces of the same have to 
be made. 

A filing jig usually consists of tw T o steel or iron 
plates with hardened edges varying from one-eighth 
inch to one inch in thickness, corresponding in shape 
to the surface or surfaces upon which they are to be 
used. 

The plates are always connected by one or more 
dowel-pins, which serve to locate one plate with the 



38 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



other and the work between them. The position of the 
dowel-pins is dependent on the nature of the work, 
sometimes being located on the outside of the work, 
but in most instances passing through the work. 

Figures 13 to 17 show two forms of filing jigs and the 
parts upon which they were used, which, in this case, are 
two plates that are fitted on the side of an old-style 
gun and which on account of their peculiar form and 
other considerations will furnish good examples of 
these useful devices. 




fflEU 



m 



MM 



111 



K 




I i 



i- 



At A A (Figures 13 and 14) are shown side and plan 
views of the part upon which is used the first form of 
filing jig ; BC (Figure 14) shows plan view of the 
filing jig, and Figure 15 section of Figure 14 at dd, 
showing part C. 



VISE WORK. 



39 



The side view of the jig plates B and C (Figure 14) 
would correspond in shape to Figure 13. 

In this case, three dowel-pins shown 
at a be (Figure 14) and ab (Figure 15) 
are used, which feature is always 
desirable when possible, as when three 
or more dowel-pins can be successfully 
employed the opposite plate of the 
filing jig and also the work can be 
located and operated on with greater 
precision and accuracy. 

At A A (Figures 16 and 17) are 
shown side and plan views of the part 
upon which is used the second form of filing jig. 
BC (Figure 17) shows top (plan) view of the filing 
jig, the side elevation of the same corresponding to 
that of Figure 16. 




Fig. IS. 




Fig. 16. 

In this instance only one dowel-pin (shown at D E F 
[Figure 17]) can be used, as the part A A (Figures 16 
and 17) has but one hole in it. In order to locate the 
parts B and C (Figure 17) of the filing jig correctly, 
the dowel-pin is turned at D to fit the hole in the 
work and squared at E to fit into a square hole, as 
shown by the dotted lines in B, thereby serving to 
locate the part B accurately with C. The dowel-pin 
is threaded at F for a nut by means of which the work 



40 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

and the jig are held together. In this and similar 
instances two or more pieces may be filed together by 
extending the length of the dowel-pin or pins to suit 
the requirements ; or when but one piece is filed at 
once, the jig may consist of one plate only if desired. 



liliBIl Ill II Ill bT-1 



Hilll l lfr "'i ll '" Hill a I 




II I 11 ■'Will o 



Fig. 17. 

Though filing jigs rank among the very oldest ap- 
pliances used for the purpose of duplicating work, they 
have gradually fallen into disuse in the larger estab- 
lishments, except on experimental and other work 
where the quantity required is insufficient to warrant 
the cost of fitting up cutters or tools for the milling or 
other special machines. And in the case of the 
smaller concerns, the employment of filing jigs is 
restricted to a few isolated instances, as their use is, 
comparatively speaking, unknown. 



41 



CHAPTER III. 

Vise Work. — Continued. 

DRIFTS. 

Drifts are used on a variety of machine-shop work 
in a very effective manner, and may be divided into 
three classes. 

First. Plain drifts which enlarge the hole or slot 
in which they are used by expanding the same. They 
are used also for drawing one hole or slot into line 
with some other hole or slot, as on boilersmith 
work. 

Second. Plain drifts which enlarge a hole or slot 
by cutting the metal away, but which have one cut- 
ting edge only upon one or more sides or surfaces of 
the drift. 

Third. Drifts which enlarge a hole or slot by cut- 
ting the metal away, but which have one or all the 
surfaces of the drift serrated or notched in such a 
manner as to form a series of cutting edges or teeth. 

For brass and composition work the first and second 
kinds of drifts are the best. For wrought iron and 
steel work either form of drift may be used, according 
to the requirements of the case. For cast iron work 
only the second and third kinds of drift can be 
used. 

Figures 18 to 21 represent the application of the 
second form of drift in cutting key- ways in pulleys 
and fly-wheels. Figure 18 shows the drift which has 
only one cutting edge. 



42 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

From the cutting edge A the upper surface of the 
drift is backed or tapered off from A to B for clearance, 
.002 inch to the inch in length being sufficient for this 
purpose. Underneath and on sides for a suitable dis- 
tance of, say, from E to F the drift is made parallel. 
An advance guide lip or tongue C to A is intended to 
guide the drift when starting a cut. And for a dis- 
tance of, say, from B to D, the drift is tapered off on 
all sides, an amount sufficient to allow for the upset- 
ting of the end of the drift, which always occurs when 
the drift is driven through the work. This form of 
drift is far superior to the third or serrated form of 




Fig. 18. 

drift (which is usually employed for this purpose), as it 
is solid throughout its entire length, and has the ad- 
ditional advantage of being easy to grind (sharpen) as 
often as the cutting edge becomes dull. 

Occasionally the sides of the drift are tapered some- 
what for clearance from A to B, but if this is done at 
all, the amount allowed must not exceed .001 inch to 
the inch in length, otherwise the drift would, by suc- 
cessive grindings, become too narrow. 

Figure 19 is a sectional view of a pulley hub A, 
with a guide plug B, drift C, packing shims D, plate 
and bolt E, all in position as the key- way F is being 
cut. The guide plug B is made a good sliding fit in 
the pulley hub. A guide groove G is then cut in the 
plug parallel with the axis of the plug on the sides, 
of the same width as the key-way to be cut, and with 
an amount of taper on the bottom of the groove equal 
to that required iov ^he key. 



VISE WORK. 



43 



The guide groove should in all cases be made deep 
enough to guide and steady the drift throughout the 
entire operation of cutting the key-way in the pulley. 
The thickness of the drift C is made equal to the 
depth of the groove on the deep end, which is equiva- 
lent to an allowance for the first cut through the work 
as the drift approaches the shallower end of the guide 
groove when the drift is driven through the work. 




Fig. 19. 



The plate and bolt E, which spans the bore of the 
pulley, is intended to hold the guide plug C firmly in 
position. A shim D, made of sheet iron or steel of the 
same thickness as the cut to be taken, is laid on the 
bottom of the guide groove after the first and each suc- 
cessive cut taken through the work. 



DRIFT JIG. 

In the design of many types of modern high- 
speed engines, the governing mechanism and the ec- 
centric or eccentrics for operating the valves are lo- 
cated in the fly-wheel of the engine, or in an extra 
wheel or disc, the whole of the mechanism includ- 
ing the governor wheel or disc being fixed on the 
crank shaft of the engine in a position which bears a 



44 



THE MODERN MACHINIST, 



definite relation to that of the crank pin or crank. In 
each and every form of this style of governor there is 
always located at some point on or within the gov- 
ernor wheel or disc a hub or pin from which an arm 
from the eccentric (where the eccentric moves across 
the shaft) or the principal lever or levers of the actuat- 
ing mechanism (where the eccentric or eccentrics 
rotate on the shaft) are pivoted, and on these points 
more than upon anything else depends the accuracy 




Fig. 20. 



Fig. 21. 



of the whole governing mechanism and valve move- 
ments. It is therefore evident that the key-seat in 
the crank shaft and the key-way in the governor 
wheel or disc may both be cut (by using suitable lo- 
cating appliances) in such a position as to bear a defi- 
nite relation to each other and to the crank or crank 
pin of the engine, and that when the governor wheel 
or disc is properly keyed on the crank shaft, it will be 
absolutely correct, 



VISE WORK. 45 

To accomplish this in the governor wheel or disc, 
either one of two methods may be employed. 

First. After turning and boring the governor 
wheel or disc, to drill the pivot hole (mentioned above) 
and then to jig from that to the key- way, whether the 
key-way is cut by machine, or drifted, or cut by hand. 

Second. To cut the key-way first and then to 
locate the holes for the pivot pins from that by 
jigging. 

Figures 20 and 21 represent the method employed 
with a jigged drift plug, using the most important 
pivot pin-hole as the location point for the jig. Fig- 
ure 20 shows a side elevation, and Figure 21 end eleva- 
tion, partly in section of governor wheel and drift 
plug jig in position ready for cutting the key- way; 
similar reference letters denoting the same parts in 
each figure. 

A A represents the drift plug, B B arm of jig, C C 
pin for locating the jig in pivot pin-hole, D D and E 
lug and hub, or boss in which the pivot pins are lo- 
cated, either one of which may be used as the point 
for locating the jig as preferred ; a a and .a' method of 
attaching or fixing the jig arm to the drift plug, b 
cross-plate and bolt. 

It will readily be seen that the above principle may 
be extended to cover the locating of double cranks, 
which are usually set to a definite angle, as in locomo- 
tive practice, and may also be applied to eccentrics 
and cams w-hich are keyed on the shaft, and to a 
variety of other purposes. 

KEYS. 

Fitting a key in a pulley or other work is generally 
regarded as a very simple matter, and so it is, when 
the conditions are all favorable to the operation and 
the underlying principles thoroughly understood. 



46 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

There is, as in all such cases, some diversity of opinion 
on this as on other subjects, some regulating their 
practice to suit known conditions existing in their own 
particular case, and others regulating their practice to 
suit their own individual preferences. 

A key improperly fitted may sometimes be the cause 
of serious accidents, or may result in fracturing or 
breaking the work into which it is fitted, or may 
otherwise impair the alignment or accuracy of the 
work. 

In ordinary practice the journeyman machinist has 
nothing to do with the proportions of the key, except 
to determine the amount of taper the key should have 
(which is in general practice about T 3 e- inch to the foot), 
these and all similar questions being usually deter- 
mined by the superintendent or draftsman. In fact, 
we question the necessity or advisability of giving the 
proportions of machine parts in a treatise of this kind, 
the proper place for such being the text books devoted 
to these subjects. 

To fit the key properly, first see that the key-seat in 
the shaft and the key- way in the pulley (or whatever 
the work may be) have been cut straight on the sides, 
and if not, rectify the inaccuracy by widening both 
the key-seat and the key- way just enough to 
straighten both. The key should then be fitted, mak- 
ing it a good fit, bedding firmly top and bottom, and 
a good tight driving fit on the sides, depending almost 
entirely on the side fit of the key to hold the shaft and 
the work together, the strain on the top and bottom of 
the key being merely sufficient to draw the opposite 
side of the bore of the work firmly up to the shaft. 
If a key is fitted in this manner, there is no danger of 
throwing the work out of line, or of fracturing or 
breaking the hub. It is practically impossible to 
break a hub by making the key fit tight on the sides, 
or to throw the work out of line from the same cause, 



VISE WORK. *7 

if the key-seat and key- way are straight, but it is the 
easiest thing in the world to break the work or throw 
it out of line by overstraining top and bottom. Keys 
for connecting rods, cross-heads and similar purposes 
will always give better satisfaction when they are 
made to fit as well on the sides as on the ends or 
edges, for when they are so fitted there are fewer 
loose-fitting straps and brasses and less liability to 
accident. 






CHAPTER IV. 

Vise Wokk. — Continued. 

INSERTING PIECES IN SEAMS. 

When working on iron or steel surfaces that are 
to be nickel plated or polished there is nothing more 
annoying to the machinist than the appearance 
of an unsightly seam in some prominent part of the 
work where it would be impossible to file it out without 
reducing the work below the size required. In all 
cases similar to the above the seams may be very 
effectively closed in the following manner without in 
any way reducing the size of, or weakening the work. 

The edges on each side of the seam are raised by 
means of a small, fine-pointed cold chisel throughout 
the entire length of the seam, inclining the chisel 
to the right or left, as shown in Figures 22 and 23, 
which are sectional end views of the work, with 
chisels inclined for raising the edges of the seam, 
A A. representing the chisel, BB the work, and aaa 
the raised edges. When each edge of the seam has 
been raised as much as required, the bottom or a por- 
tion of the seam is then flattened by means of a cold 
set (chisel ground flat on the end), as shown in Figure 
24, A representing the set, B the work, c bottom of 
seam, and a a raised edges. A piece of half-round iron 
or steel wire is then laid in the seam with the flat 
side of the wire on the bottom of seam. The seam is 



VISE WORK. 



49 



then closed by peening the raised edges of the seam 
down over the wire. Unless the seam is a very wide 
one, the width and depth of the seam should not 
exceed i? inch after the edges are raised and the 
bottom flattened. 

Figure 25 is a sectional end view of the work after 
the seam has been closed, A representing the work, 
B the piece inserted in the seam. If the job has been 
done in a workmanlike manner, it is impossible even 
for an expert to discover where the seam has been 
closed. 




Fig. 25. 



Fig. 24. 



Pieces of larger dimensions can be inserted in iron 
or steel work in much the same manner, by cutting 
the metal out where the imperfections exist, dove- 
tailing the sides or the end of the work where the metal 
has been removed, and then beveling the ends or edges 
of the piece to be inserted to correspond. The piece is 
then bent in the center to contract the beveled edges 
sufficiently to admit of the piece being put into the 
channel or groove, after which the piece is then 
expanded by hammering it straight again.' The edges 
are then closed by peening, and the piece filed down 



50 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

level with the surrounding surfaces. While the inser- 
tion of large pieces may be all right in a case of 
emergency, if done in such place and manner as not 
to weaken the work to any material extent, it should 
only be resorted to in a case of absolute necessity, 
for at the best it can only be regarded as a subterfuge 
to cover up some imperfection that should not exist. 

PEENING AND STRAIGHTENING METAL. 

The peening of metal work by indenting the outer 
or inner surfaces of the work with the peen of a ham- 
mer in such manner as to cause the hammered sur- 
face to stretch or elongate, in order to straighten, 
change the shape of, open or close the work, is a 
method which has been practised by the machinist 
from time immemorial ; and though it may be advis- 
able in some cases to straighten or otherwise change 
the shape of the work by this method, still it can 
scarcely be said to be good practice where and when 
other and better methods are available, and it cer- 
tainly is not what may be termed the approved prac- 
tice of the day, nor does it improve the appearance 
of finished or other work to batter it out of all sem- 
blance of recognition. In the case of a connecting-rod 
strap that has to be opened or closed, the opening or 
closing may be effected in a better if not in a more 
expeditious manner by heating the strap slightly, and 
making the necessary adjustment by means of a bolt 
and nut, or in the vise, or by other means, without in 
any way marring the appearance of the work. For 
all wrought-iron work the above or some similar 
method is preferable to peening in nearly every 
instance. But for cast-iron work, which is warped or 
bent, the attempt to straighten or otherwise change 
the shape of the work by other means than peening is 
very seldom made; in fact, outside of our own individual 



VISE WORK. 



51 



experience, we don't remember having seen it done 
more than once or twice. It is nevertheless a fact 
that cast iron may be heated and straightened or 
changed in shape by pressure, within a reasonable 



© 



-nil'- ' 



® 



B 
Fig. 26. 



m 



degree, by means of a press, or with a wrench holding 
the work in the vise after it has been heated, or with 
bolts and straps on. the planer or other platen, or by 
applying the pressure by other suitable means. 

Suppose the rod A to be bent as shown at B C 
(Figure 26). 

It may be straightened by heating the rod at B C 
and then applying the pressure at C, in any of the 
above-mentioned ways. Just as soon as the rod has 
been straightened the pressure may be relieved and 
the rod laid aside to cool. 

Figures 27 and 28 represent the casting for a ma- 
chine frame, the standard and hubs A A' A" form- 
ing the bearings for one spindle or shaft, and B B' B" 
the bearings for the other shaft. 

t To straighten the standard A" (Figure 28) (which 
has been warped in casting), to bring the hub in line 
before boring, the standard is heated to a red heat at 

a, if possible making it hottest on the side b, and only 
a dull red heat on the side c, as in order to straighten 
the standard the surface b will have to be stretched 
to the length of c, as it is impossible to upset or com- 
press the surface c enough to conform to that of 

b. It will therefore be seen that it is easier to 
stretch the surface b if it is made hotter than that of 



52 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



c. As soon as the standard is heated enough the hub 
A" is held in the vise and pressure carefully ap- 
plied until the standard is straightened. The pres- 
sure is then relieved and the frame laid aside to cool. 




jCjil | 



Fig. 27. 




Fig. 28. 

When a piece of work has been treated as above, it 
may, as soon as it has been bent to the shape required, 
be laid aside to cool, and it will not spring back again 
even though a cut be taken over the surface which 
has been bent. This one feature, if there were no 
other advantage in this method, should of itself rec- 
ommend it to the intelligent mechanic. Many cast- 
ings which are now discarded because they have been 
warped in casting could be restored in this manner at 
a trifling cost, all that is necessary being ordinary 
care and judgment. 



63 



CHAPTER V. 

Chasing. 

Chasing is the art of finishing bronze, composition, 
and other soft metal art and ornamental work, by 




.g 



7 





Fig. 29. 




means of scrapers, burnishers, and a variety of other 
instruments in the form of punches of different bhapes 



54 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



and sizes, the metal being cut away from or driven 
into the body of the work, and the design, if any, on 
the face of the punch is conferred to or upon the work 
by the action of the punch and hammers. 

Though this art forms no part of the machinist's 
branch of mechanics, yet a knowledge of the chaser's 
tools and their application can be used to good ad- 
vantage by the machinist in finishing ornate pattern 
and other work, almost to the entire exclusion of any 
other method, and also in finishing other work diffi- 
cult of access by the ordinary methods. 

Figure 29 represents a number of different forms of 
the chaser's punch tools, the size of the faces of the 



rr-^4 wmF=n^^F=wyA vsm-fa* 

a Mig. 30. 

nuJT 




Fig. 31. 



punches varying from T ^ inch by -^ inch to J inch by 
| inch, and the length from 4 to 5 inches, ac- 
cording to the requirements and nature of the work. 

No. 1 represents a loup tool, the face of which is 
egg-shaped, used for finishing the fillets in corners 
and along the abutting surfaces of the work. 

No. 2. Planisher. For producing a smooth sur- 
face, generally used for finishing the recessed surfaces 
of work, such as shown on the under side of the pat- 
tern at a a' (Figure 30). 

No. 3. Side planisher. For finishing the flanged 
or other edges of recessed or relief work, such as shown 
at b b' b" (Figures 30 and 31). 



CHASING. 55 

No. 4. Half-round planisher. For finishing the 
inside of grooves, along fillets, etc., such as a a' (Figures 
32 and 33). 

No. 5. Flat planisher. For producing a slightly 
matted surface on work, such as shown at c c' (Figure 
31). 




Fig. 32. 







Fig. 33. 



No. 6. Half-round (convex or male) planisher. 
For producing a slightly matted surface on grooved 
and other work. 

No. 7. Plain planisher with edges slightly 
rounded off. 

No. 8. Half-round cross-grooved tracer. For mak- 
ing and finishing borders on ornate w T ork. 



56 THE MODERN MACHINIST, 

Nos. 9 and 10. Male and female beading tools. 
For finishing the beads and cuplike depressions on 
ornate work. 

No. 11. Half-round (concave) tracer. For finishing 
half-round or round borders and similar work, 
such as bb' (Figures 32 and 33), 

Noo 12. Plain semicircular tracer. For finishing 
along the flanges or corners of round and other curved 
work, such as c c' (Figures 32 and 33). 

No. 13. Plain tracer. For finishing along the cor- 
ners and elsewhere of plain work. 

Nos. 14 to 18. Matting tools. For producing 
heavier or deeper matted surfaces, one form of which 
is shown at c (Figure 33). 

Nos. 19 and 20. Other forms of beading tools. Any 
and all of the above chasing tools are made male or 
female as required to produce an embossed or indented 
matted or other appearance. 

When the work to be chased is flat and has no re- 
cesses on the under or opposite side of it, and the form 
is such that it cannot be held in the vise while being 
chased, the work is held on a plate of cast or 
wrought iron with common solder. The plate may be 
from J inch to 1 inch in thickness, and of such size other- 
wise as to admit of one or more pieces of the work to 
be chased being soldered on the top of it. On the 
under side of the plate are lugs or projections, by 
which it is held in the vise. The top of the plate 
should first receive a coating of common solder, and 
while the plate is still hot enough for the solder to 
flow, the work is (after being straightened on the 
opposite or under side by means of a wooden or raw- 
hide mallet) laid on the plate to which it will adhere, 
and then cooled off. After the work has been operated 
on, the plate is again heated and the work taken off. 

In other cases where the inner or under side of the 
work is of such shape that it cannot be soldered onto 



CHASING. 57 

the above-mentioned plate or held in the vise, it is 
sometimes held by means of a leather strap on a 
block of wood cut out to fit the work or on a sand-bag ; 
the work being placed on the block or bag, and held 
by the strap, applying the pressure (to hold it down) 
with the foot. 

When the form or shape of the work is such that it 
cannot be held while being chased or operated on by 
any of the above methods, as in the case of the pattern 
(Figures 30, 31, 32 and 33), where the inner or under 
side of the patterns are recessed, the work, with the 
exception of the surface to be operated on, is imbedded 
in a block of composition made of resin of ordinary 
grade and plaster of paris, equal parts, to which is 
added (about one ounce to the pound of composition) 
tallow (candles), the whole being mixed together by 
heating in an iron pan or kettle, the resin being 
melted first, then the plaster of paris being gradually 
stirred in with the melted resin, after which the tal- 
low is added, and the mass poured out to form a block 
of suitable size, and allowed to cool. To imbed the 
work, the top surface of the block is again softened by 
heating it with a bunsen burner or blow-pipe ; the 
heated surface is then pressed or kneaded to such 
shape as will approximately conform to the recesses 
and shape of the work. The work is then pressed 
down as far as required into the composition, which 
is then squeezed well up to the work all round and 
allowed to cool. 

The work is finished by hammering the surfaces 
down with the punches and hammer in such a man- 
ner as to leave them perfectly smooth, or to confer the 
design (if any) on the punch to the surface of the 
work. Of course, it will be understood that the ac- 
tion of the hammer and punches on such work as 
Figures 30 and 31 will be analogous to that of peening, 
and therefore has a tendency to warp or change the 



— 



58 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

shape of the work ; but as the work is always made of 
bronze, composition, or other soft or malleable metal; 
it can be readily straightened and restored to shape 
with a wooden or raw-hide mallet. 

d'd" (Figure 33) shows line of intersection for Figure 
32. 



59 



CHAPTER VI. 

Erecting. 

General erecting or that branch of the machinist's 
trade which consists in the assembling together, 
mounting, or erecting of engines, machinery, or other 
work (either during or after the parts which constitute 
the whole have been fitted together), should be care- 
fully and closely studied by every apprentice or ma- 
chinist that desires to attain any prominence as a 
mechanic. 

A knowledge and familiarity of and with the prin- 
ciples involved; and the methods adapted to and em- 
ployed in the general erection of machinery and other 
work is an absolute necessity, and should be very 
thoroughly acquired. 

The erector should furnish for his own use such 
tools as are adapted to the work he has to do, and the 
tools should be as few in number as possible, and 
should be used with such care as only a good mechanic 
can bestow. 

It may be frequently observed that a certain 
mechanic is credited with being a better workman than 
his associates, not because he is a better mechanic than 
they are, but simply because he has intelligence and 
enterprise enough to procure for his own use tools of 
a superior grade, which are adapted to the work he 
has to do, and by the use of which he is enabled to do 
his work more accurately and expeditiously x than his 
associates, thereby and justly earning for himself the 
reputation of being a better mechanic than they are, 



60 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

SETTING OR LINING SHAFTING. 

When the machinist is called upon to set up a line 
of shafting, it is very seldom that he finds anything in 
the way of suitable appliances with which to do or 
facilitate the operation of setting or lining the shafting. 
The most practical and successful way to set a line of 
shafting is to use a transit level, but there is not over 
one establishment in a hundred where such an instru- 
ment is available, or where the ordinary machinist, is 
acquainted with its use, and consequently the machinist 
must use such appliances as are available, or make 
some that are adapted to this purpose. 

Many machinists simply use an ordinary spirit level 
laid on the top of the line shaft at suitable intervals to 
secure the horizontal alignment of the shafting, and a 
stretched cord for obtaining the lateral or longitudinal 
alignment. 

When no other appliance is used for securing the 
horizontal alignment of the line shaft than an ordinary 
spirit level, it will be found practically impossible to 
make the shaft accurate, for the simple reason that an 
ordinary spirit level is not a very reliable instrument. 
If a spirit level is used at all, it should be of the very 
best make that can be procured, and should then be 
used only in connection with some other appliance, 
such as will secure an absolutely correct alignment of 
the line shaft. And therefore if the establishment 
where the machinist is employed does not possess a 
good reliable spirit level, the machinist should provide 
one for his own use, whatever the cost may be. A good 
spirit level is practically indispensable to the erector, 
for it can be applied to ensure the horizontal and ver- 
tical alignment of work in a thousand places, and will 
often give more accurate results than either squares or 
straight edges. 

In the following examples are shown some excel- 



ERECTING. 61 

lent devices for setting or lining line shafting. They 
are such as can be made by any good mechanic, and 
such as will give very accurate results. 

To set up a line of shafting, the first thing to be done 
is to stretch a chalked line close to the . ceiling of the 
shop or building in a line parallel to the axis the line 
shaft is intended to occupy; then by snapping the 
line in the usual way, the result is a chalk line the 
whole length the line shaft is to be. This chalk line 
is to serve as a temporary line from which, by means 
of a plumb-line, or by measuring otherwise, each 
hanger or bracket may be approximately located and 
fixed in a position corresponding to the longitudinal 
alignment for the shafting, the horizontal align- 
ment of the boxes or bearings being approximately 
determined by placing a parallel rod or straight edge 
in the first two, and then in each bearing in succes- 
sion, leveling them with a spirit level. The shafting 
can now be placed in. position in the bearings and the 
permanent alignment of the same proceeded with. 
For the permanent longitudinal alignment of the 
shafting a strong, fine line of cord or string is to be 
tightly stretched in a line parallel to the longitudinal 
axis of the line shaft, fixing it either directly below 
and in a vertical plane with the axis of the line shaft, 
or, if for other considerations, to one side of the same 
as much as deemed necessary ; then by suspending a 
plumb-line from the shafting, and measuring from that 
to the stretched cord, the longitudinal alignment of 
the line shaft can be accurately obtained. 

Simultaneously with the above operation, the per- 
manent horizontal alignment of the line shaft may be 
proceeded with by means of the mounted straight 
edge and spirit level shown in Figure 34, where A A 
represents the line shaft, BBV blocks, C straight 
edge, D spirit level, E E E hanger brackets, F stretched 
cord or line, G G plumb-line. 



62 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



In many cases where a line shaft has to be reset or 
relined, or where it is necessary to put all or part of 
the pulleys on the line shaft prior to placing it in the 
bearings, the mounted straight edge shown in Figure 
34 may be inept for the purpose, in which case the 




Vig. 34. 



straight edge may be suspended below the line shaft 
and pulleys, as shown in Figure 35, in which the 
same reference letters denote the same relative parts as 
in Figure 34, the method of alignment being also 
practically the same. 



II hE 




Fig. 35. 



In Figure 36 is shown a method of leveling a line 
shaft from points located at suitable distances along 
the floor of the shop or building which will give very 
accurate and satisfactory results if done in a workman- 
like manner; in fact, it is doubtful if anything more 



EKKCT1NG. 



63 



accurate can be devised for the purpose. In the fig-^ 
ure referred to A represents a water level, which is 
merely a trough about 4 inches wide 3 inches deep, 
and 12 feet or more in 
length, according to the | 
requirements of the case, | 
but not to be less than | 
the distance from one | 
hanger bearing to the |i 
other. The depth of the |r 
level must be exactly the ' 
same at each end ; that | 
is, from the underside c 
the level to the top of the | 
end piece of the same; | 
otherwise the level will 
not be accurate. The sides | 
of the level should be | 
slightly higher in the cen- 
ter than on the ends, to 
prevent the water from 
flowing over the sides of 
the level before it flows ^ 
over the ends, when the 
level is filled with water; 
B B' B" wooden blocks 
nailed to the floor, C a pole 
about 1 or 1J inches diam- 
eter and of such length 
as will reach from the top 
of the blocks on the floor 
to the underside of the line 
shaft, an ordinary wood 
screw with the heads filed 
off being screwed into each end of the pole to form the 
measuring terminals, DD line shaft, EEE hangers. 
To set a line shaft by this method the plan of 




Fig. 36. 






64 THE MODERN MACHINIST, 

proceeding is as follows : If preferred, the line shaft may 
be first approximately aligned as outlined in the 
preceding examples. A chalked line should then be 
stretched along the floor in a line parallel with the 
axis of the line shaft. The line is then snapped in the 
usual way to make a chalk line along the floor. Then 
on the floor directly underneath the line shaft and at a 
point about 4 or 6 inches past the end of the hanger 
bearing a block of wood of any thickness desired is 
nailed to the floor as shown at B ; similar blocks are 
then nailed to the floor in the same relative position 
just past the end of each of the other hanger bearings 
in succession, as shown at B' B r/ . The tops of the blocks 
B B ; are then planed off until they are perfectly level as 
determined by the water level A (which will be 
shown on gradually filling the level with water until 
the water flows over each end simultaneously). When 
these two blocks are perfectly level, the level is then 
transferred to the blocks B' B", and the block B" is 
planed off until it is level with the block B', and so on, 
until all the blocks are perfectly level. The tram rod 
C is then adjusted to measure the distance exactly from 
the top of the block B to the underside of the line 
shaft, as shown at B b. The line shaft is then 
adjusted until it measures the same from the top of 
each block to the underside of the line shaft at each 
hanger in succession. 

The longitudinal alignment of the line shaft is 
obtained in the same manner as in the preceding 
examples, with a stretched line or cord and a plumb- 
line. 

A straight edge and spirit level may be used for 
leveling the blocks on the floor, if preferred, instead of 
the water level. But unless both are of extra fine 
make, they will not give the same accurate results as 
the water level. 

The wooden blocks on the floor should not be dis- 



ERECTING. 65 

turbed until all the machinery is in position and the 
pulleys and belts put on, as it is a good plan to give 
the line shaft a final testing after everything is set up 
and belted up, thereby correcting any possible deflec- 
tion occasioned by the strain from the belting. 

It not infrequently happens that a line shaft ex- 
tends or has to be extended through the wall from 
one room or building to some other room or building, 
and that it is a difficult matter to secure a correct 
longitudinal alignment of the extension of the line 
shaft, owing to the limited space in the wall boxes, 
which in some cases is barely sufficient to admit the 
bearing for the line shaft therein. In such cases the 
stretched line or cord referred to in the preceding 
examples should be stretched as far to one side of 
the line shaft as will allow it to clear the bearing. 
When this is possible the stretched cord can usually 
be aligned by means of plumb-lines suspended on 
that portion of the line shaft already set up, as the 
stretched cord can then be suspended below the axis 
of the line shaft; but when the space occupied by the 
bearing precludes the possibility of suspending the 
stretched cord below the axis of the line shaft, then 
the cord should be suspended on a line level with the 
horizontal axis of the line shaft, or if necessary, even 
a little above the axial line of the shaft, the 
longitudinal alignment of the cord being obtained, as 
shown in Figure 37, by means of two or more 
wooden tram-pieces, one end of which is made V 
shape, and the other end square with the edges. 

Figure 37 represents plan (top) view of line shaft 
and extension of the same ; A A' line shaft, B B r 
hangers, C shaft bearing in wall box, D wall box, 
EE' wooden tram-pieces, FF stretched cord, GG 
section of wall, A." sectional end view of shaft, 
E /r// side view of w^ooden tram-pieces, E" E r// dotted 
lines showing manner of lining up extension of 



66 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



line shaft by means of the wooden tram-pieces. The 
end of the stretched cord is tied to the shaft or else- 
where, as shown at a, the cord 
is then stretched and the tram- 
piece E is inserted between 
the cord and the line shaft, by 
which means it is held in con- 
tact with the line shaft, acting 
as a fixed distance piece be- 
tween the line shaft and 
the cord. The cord is then 
aligned longitudinally by 
holding the second tram-piece 
E' in contact with the line 
shaft, and adjusting the cord 
until it just touches the end 
of the tram-piece. When the 
cord has been fastened in that 
position, the alignment of the 
extension of the line shaft may 
be proceeded with by the same 
means employed for the rest 
of the line shaft. If the 
stretched cord is a very long 
one, the longitudinal align- 
ment of the cord may be some- 
what effected by currents of 
air, in which case the cord may 
be prevented from swaying by 
means of weights suspended on strings from nails driven 
into the ceiling in a perpendicular line with the cord. 




Fig. 37. 



MOVING AND SETTING MACHINERY. 



In setting up machinery, due regard should be paid 
to the disposition and position of each and every 
machine that has to be set up. 



ERECTING. 67 

For instance, in determining the position of the vari- 
ous machine tools in a shop building steam engines, 
each machine should be located in a position the most 
favorable to the work to be done on it, as in the case 
of the machines for performing the various operations 
on the bed-plates and cylinders of the engines. The 
first operation on the bed-plate is the planing ; the 
second, the boring and turning; the third, the 
drilling. And on the cylinders, the first operation is 
the boring ; the second, the planing ; the third, drill- 
ing. It is therefore evident that the position of the 
machines mentioned should be such that the work 
can be readily transferred from one machine to the 
other as the various operations are to be performed 
thereon. And in like manner, the position of every 
machine should be carefully considered. 

There are many other important factors which are 
likely to enter into the consideration of the question 
as to where and how the machines should be located, 
such as the position the countershafts for the various 
machines must occupy without conflicting with the 
working of each other. Then again, the space occu- 
pied by the traveling or jib cranes, or the trolley 
ways for conveying and transferring the work to and 
from the machines and elsewhere, will assuredly have 
something to do with the locating of the various 
machines. 

Therefore, from these and other considerations, the 
importance of having all the conditions thoroughly 
understood and of making a detail plan drawing of 
everything to be set up will be readily seen. 

The transportation or moving of heavy machines 
to their places on the foundations is often a matter of 
some difficulty. Skids and rollers are always utilized 
when they are available, but as a general thing they 
can only be used for moving the machinery in one 
direction, and resort must be had to blocking and 



68 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



levers for moving the machinery in a lateral or trans- 
verse direction onto the foundation, which is not only 
a slow and tedious process, but also expensive. 

The method of moving heavy machinery, shown in 
Figure 38, has proved very successful in our own 
practice, and we can recommend it for moving heavy 
machinery very quickly in any direction. The plan 
consists in placing a plank or beam of wood under 
the feet or frame of the machine facing the direction 
the machine has to be moved, and then attaching a 
sling around the machine and another sling over 




■one extreme end of the plank or beam and con- 
necting the two slings by means of a tackle 
block, as shown at BCD, where A represents 
the extreme end of a planer bed and platen, 
B sling around the standard of the same, C 
sling across the end of the plank E upon 
which the planer rests, D tackle block which connects 
the slings B and C. When moving a machine in 
a transverse direction, a tackle block may be used on 
each end of the machine, so that each end may be 
moved in unison, and when moving the machine in 
the direction of its length, either one or two tackles 
may be used ; if one is used a bar should be placed 



ERECTING. 69 

across the extreme ends of the planks, and the tackle 
block hooked onto that. The only thing necessary to 
be observed in using this appliance is to get the 
sling on the machine as low as compatible with safety 
to the machine legs, and to get the sling C (on the end 
of the plank) below the median line F of the plank, 
to prevent the latter from raising. 

When a machine has been placed in position on its 
foundations it should be very carefully aligned 
horizontally and transversely by means of a straight 
edge and levels raising any particular part of the 
machine that happens to be lower than the surround- 
ing surfaces of the same by inserting iron or wooden 
wedges under the frame or feet, directly- under that 
part of the machine which is lowest. 

Narrow iron or wooden wedges may be inserted 
under all the feet or all around the frame of the 
machine at suitable intervals and the machine raised 
about \ inch above the foundation. The machine may 
then be leveled by driving the wedges in, or drawing 
them out, as required. A bank of clay or putty may 
then be put all around the feet or frame of the 
machine in the usual way, and the space between 
the bottom of the feet or frame of the machine and its 
foundation filled up by pouring either mixed port- 
land cement or melted sulphur (brimstone) therein. 
When this is thoroughly set or hardened it forms a 
good solid foundation, which will seldom give any 
further trouble. 

In setting small lathes or other machines, melted 
spelter is often used to pour under the feet of the 
machines instead of the portland cement or sulphur, 
or hardwood blocks may be used for the same purpose 
if preferred. 






70 



CHAPTER VII. 

Erecting. — Continued. 

ERECTING A TRACTION ENGINE. 

The erection of a traction engine furnishes an 
excellent example of the practical application of many 
of the principles involved and the methods which are 
employed in general erecting, for there is such a 
variety of parts to be located and aligned that 
a knowledge of the methods employed in locating and 
aligning many of these parts cannot fail to be 
instructive in the highest degree. 

A traction engine with locomotive type of boiler 
has been selected for the purpose of illustrating the 
methods employed, as many of these methods are 
identical with those employed in locomotive construc- 
tion in erecting similar parts, the principles being the 
same throughout in both cases. All the parts and 
attachments located on the under side of the boiler 
are always fitted to place before any of the upper 
parts and attachments are fitted. These parts can be 
fitted much easier and better if the boiler is inverted 
(turned upside down). 

The parts which are fitted on the under side of a 
traction engine boiler are generally such as can be 
fitted without any special appliances or fixtures, using 
a spirit level for any necessary alignment of the parts. 
But when, as in locomotive practice, all or many of the 
parts on the under side of the boiler are fitted and 



ERECTING. 



71 



aligned with due reference to a center line, as in the 
case of the cylinders, frames, etc., the center line 
is obtained in the same manner as explained in 
Figure 41. Before proceeding with the fitting of any 
of the parts, the boiler must be aligned in two and 
sometimes in three directions, viz., vertically, hori- 
zontally and longitudinally. 

When the boiler has been inverted, a center line 
A A (Figure 39) should be made on the back end of 
the boiler, first describing the arcs a a a a with the 
trams (abbreviation for trammels) from the points 
b b b b and then continuing the center line from A to 
A with a straight edge and scriber (scratch awl). The 
boiler is then aligned vertically from this center line 




^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 



Fig. 39. 



by means of a plumb-line, and is supported in the verti- 
cal position by means of the rods B B, one end of 
which is spiked into the floor and the other end hooked 
to fit the nipples C C which are screwed into the plug 
holes of the boiler. 






n 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



The horizontal alignment of the boiler is obtained 
by means of a straight edge and level placed on small 
parallels on top of the cylindrical part of the boiler in 
front of the fire box. 

When all the parts have been fitted on the under 
side of the boiler, the boiler may be turned over and 
re-aligned for the permanent erection and fitting of 
all the parts. In some cases it may be necessary to 
remove some of the parts on the under side of boiler 
to avoid breaking the same when turning the boiler 
over. 

When the boiler has been turned over it should be 
mounted in a suitable way on blocking, as shown in 
Figure 40, with one or more blocks under the fire 




Fig. 40. 

box and a wooden trestle (or horse) under the fore 
end (cylindrical part) of the boiler. The boiler is 
then permanently aligned in the same manner as 
employed in aligning the under side of the boiler, 



ERECTING. 



?3 



the vertical alignment by means of a plumb-line (as 
shown in an obvious manner in the Figure), and the 
horizontal alignment by placing a straight edge and 
spirit level on small parallels on the top of the 
cylindrical parts of the boiler. 

A center line is then made on the top of the 
boiler parallel to the longitudinal axis of the same by 
means of a square and level, as shown in Figure 41, 
where a a represents the center line on top of boiler, 




Fig. 41. 

b b b b square (including dotted lines), c c level, and 
d d line on square from which the center line on 
boiler is obtained. 

To obtain the center line, a square (which may be 
either wood or steel) is placed with one blade resting 
on top of boiler at A and the other blade touching 
the side of the same. The upper blade of the square 



74 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



is then leveled by means of a spirit level, and the 
line d (the distance of which from e to d should be 
equal to the radius of the outer diameter of the 
boiler) is transferred to the boiler. The square is then 
transferred to B C D in succession and the operation 
repeated. When these four points have been made 
the center line is made by making and continuing 
(with a straight edge) a line directly through or 
between these four points along the top of the boiler 
from the fore end of the smoke box to or beyond the 
dome. 







Firr. 42. 



When the above operation has been completed and 
the center line obtained, the cylinder brackets may 
then be aligned and located in the following manner : 
(The brackets are placed in position on the boiler and 
supported by wooden props while being fitted.) 



ERECTING. 



75 



The brackets are aligned in four directions, 
viz., longitudinally, transversely, horizontally and 
vertically. The operation of aligning the brackets 
longitudinally and transversely are conducted simul- 
taneously, the longitudinal alignment by means 
of the trams A A, shown in Figure 42, which deter- 
mines the distance of the brackets from the center 
line a a, as indicated by the line bb. 

The transverse alignment and height of the 
brackets are obtained and determined by means of the 
tram-board A (Figure 43), which is placed on the top 




Fig. 43, 

of the boiler and leveled as therein shown. The 
line c (shown on the forward bracket) is drawn 
transversely across the bracket from the under side of 
the tram-board, as shown at d. 

The vertical line (shown also on the forward 
bracket) is obtained by placing a square on the end 



76 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



of the brackets with the blade pointing downwards ; 
then if the stock of the square is leveled with a 
spirit level, the blade will be in a perpendicular posi- 
tion and the vertical line e may be drawn from b to 
intersect the line c. 

The horizontal line f f is obtained by continuing 
the line c along the outer surface of the brackets by 
means of a straight edge and level. 

Cylinder brackets and other parts and fittings 
which have to be fitted and bolted to the boiler 
always have chipping pieces, flanges, or ribs, which 
are to be chipped and filed away until the part is 
closely fitted to the boiler, the chipping and filing 
of which must be done in such manner as to facilitate 
the locating and ensure the correct alignment of the 
part in all directions. 



a. 




Fig. 44. 

When the cylinder brackets have been fitted and 
correctly aligned in all directions the position of the 
bolt holes (which have been previously drilled or cast 
in the brackets) is marked out on the boiler, usually 



ERECTING. 77 

by means of a piece of piping (which has been turned 
to fit the holes) the end of which has been slightly 
smeared with red lead, or by means of a scriber 
(scratch awl). The brackets are then removed and the 
outlines of the holes marked with a center punch, 
after which the holes in the boiler are cut and drifted to 
tapping size, using for this purpose what is termed a 
" cape " chisel (which differs from a " cross-cut " chisel by 
being tapered off to a point on all sides) and drift, as 
shown in Figure 44, in which a and b represent an 
edge and side view of cape chisel, c cross-cut chisel, 
d drift, winch is turned taper and of the same size on 
the large end at e as a tapping drill would be for the 
size of tap required. The drift is ground away on 
the small end at f to form a cutting edge to cut away 
any burrs which may be left in " capeing." The holes 
are then drifted to size and tapped out, care being 
taken to tap the holes to the angle at which the bolts 
should enter the boiler. The brackets are then 
replaced and temporarily bolted to the boiler, after 
which they are re-aligned and the lines center punched 
in the usual way ; they are then taken off the boiler 
again and planed to the lines marked out on the 
brackets, using the lines first to set the brackets by on 
the planer or shaper, and then planing the surfaces to 
these marks or lines. 

After the brackets are planed they are again bolted 
temporarily to the boiler and tested for parallelism 
with a straight edge. The cylinder (which has been 
previously planed and drilled) is then placed in posi- 
tion on the brackets and held by clamps while the 
bolt holes are marked out on the brackets. (Prefer- 
ence is given this method of marking the holes for the 
bolts which hold the cylinder to the brackets, as more 
accurate results can be obtained and less trouble is 
experienced than when the holes are jigged.) 

The brackets are again taken off the boiler and the 



78 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

holes for the cylinder bolts drilled therein, but in this 
instance, instead of drilling the holes concentric with 
the lines marked out on the brackets, the holes are 
drilled slightly out of center (possibly 2-1000 inch) 
in the direction of the lines ff on the brackets 
(Figure 43), the result of which is that when the bolts 
(which are turned to fit the holes) are driven into the 
holes the cylinder and the brackets are drawn closer 
together, thereby avoiding any possibility of the 
cylinder ever becoming loose on the brackets through 
the jarring and vibrations to which it is constantly 
subjected. 

The brackets may now be permanently bolted to 
the boiler, this time using new bolts smeared with 
red lead, screwing them up just sufficient to hold them 
in place. They are again tested with straight edge 
and level for the final alignment, after which the 
cylinder is placed and clamped in position on the 
brackets, the holes for the cylinder bolts reamed 
out, and the bolts inserted and tightened up. 

The cylinder is then tested on the planed surfaces 
of the steam chest or valve seats for the vertical 
alignment, tipping the upper or lower parts of the 
brackets by inserting thin wedges or strips under the 
corners of the same to throw the cylinder in the 
direction required if any change is necessary. 

The space between the boiler and the outer edges 
on the sides and bottom of the brackets is then 
closed either with putty or with clay that has been 
carefully prepared for the purpose, leaving the space 
open between the boiler and the upper edge of the 
brackets. The internal space between the boiler and 
the brackets is then filled up with molten spelter 
(zinc), pouring it in through the opening left on top 
of the brackets. Great care must be exercised in fill- 
ing up this space with the molten metal, for if any 
moisture exists or is generated (by sweating) on 



ERECTING. 



79 



either the boiler or bracket the metal is liable to 
explode and fly out to the injury of the operator. 

When the metal has cooled off, the bolts which 
hold the brackets to the boiler may be tightened up 
as much as necessary to hold the brackets and cylinder 
permanently in position. Any surplus spelter is then 
trimmed off even with the edge of the brackets. 

The toe bracket a (Figure 45) is then fitted and 
bolted to place under the planed surface of the tail- 
piece b, and the space between the boiler and the 




Fig. 45. 

bracket filled in with molten spelter in the same man- 
ner as the cylinder bracket. 

The crank-shaft bearing c should now be fitted and 
babbitted (in traction engine work the crank-shaft 
bearings are usually babbitted, the ends of the bear- 
ings being planed off at the same time as the guide- 
ways, steam chests, and valve seats). Sometimes the 
number of engines to be made would scarcely war- 
rant the cost of making any expensive appliance for 
aligning and babbitting the crank-shaft bearings, in 
which case the babbitting plug shown in Figure 46 
may be used, A representing the babbitting plug, 
which is a solid plug turned to the same size as the 
crank-shaft journal with a flange B on one end, C 



80 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



loose washer which fits the body of plug, D and E 
washer and bolt for holding the plug in position. 
When the bearing has been prepared for babbitting 
one or more thin pasteboard or sheet-iron liners are 
placed between the two halves of the bearing with 
the edge A (Figure 47) (which should when pouring 
both halves of the bearing together have V-shaped 
notches [shown at B] cut at intervals throughout the 
length of the same to permit of the babbitt-metal 





flowing from one part of the box to the other) in close 
contact with the side of the babbitting plug. When 
these liners have been adjusted the cap (of the bear- 
ing) may be screwed down tight. The babbitting plug 
is aligned transversely and horizontally by bolting it 
in position, so that the turned face of the flange B 
(Figure 46) comes in direct contact with the planed 
or faced surface on the end of the bearing. The height 
of the axis of the plug (and of the axis of the crank 
shaft) is determined by squaring from a marked center 
on the outer surface of the flange B of the babbitting 



ERECTING. 



81 



plug to a stretched center line drawn through the 
center of the cylinder bore and guides. 
■ The bearing may then be babbitted, after which 
the cap can be taken off and the plug removed. A 
hollow mandrel (made of turned piping or tubing) of 
the same diameter as the crank-shaft journals (less the 
amount allowed for scraping or reaming the bearings 
to size) and long enough to reach across the boiler is 
then placed and bolted in the bearing. The pillow 
block or off-side bearing d (Figure 45) of the crank 




Fig. 48. 



shaft is then fitted and aligned to this mandrel and 
fitted and bolted to the boiler, and the space between 
the boiler and the saddles of the pillow-block bracket is 
filled with spelter (as with the other brackets). When 
the pillow-block bracket has been fitted and bolted to 
the boiler, the box or bearing is prepared for babbitting, 
placing one or more liners between the two halves of the 
same (as in the other bearing). A solid babbitting 
mandrel can now (if preferred) be substituted for the 
hollow one ; this mandrel must be tested to see that the 
alignment is correct, being tested for the horizontal 
alignment by means of a spirit level, and for the trans- 
verse alignment by squaring from the mandrel to a 
stretched line or cord drawn through the center of 
the cylinder and guides, or to the planed surfaces on 



82 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



the end of the near-side bearing of the crank shaft, or 
by using the collar tram, shown in Figure 48, which 
represents a plan view of the bearing c, the mandrel 
D, the collar tram A B, and the stretched line or cord 
C (which is drawn through the center of the cylinder 
and guides) in position. To test the mandrel D with 
this device for the transverse alignment, the collar B 
(which should be a good fit on the end of the man- 
drel) is placed on the end of the mandrel D and 
pressed close up to the bearing c ; the tram point A 
is then adjusted to just touch the line C at a, the 
tram point is then transferred to b (always keeping 
the collar B pressed close up to the bearing c), and if the 




Fig. 49. 



tram point touches the line C, the same at b as at a, 
the alignment is correct ; if not, the bearings must be 
scraped until the mandrel D is in line. 

The transverse horizontal alignment of the man- 
drel D should be absolutely perfect, as very little, if 
any, change can be made after the off-side bearing d 
(Figure 45) has been babbitted. 

When the mandrel D (Figure 45). has been correctly 
aligned, the bearing d can be poured, after which 
both bearings should be scraped to fit the man- 



ERECTING. 



83 



drel until it can be turned easily by hand when both 
bearings are tightened up. 

When the number of engines to be built will war- 



• I 


II 




1 


< -J 


ll 






111 J. 


| 


1 j 










- 


< 




< 




ill 






QQ 




1 

1 •, 


d 


Fig. 61. 






a 






— 5 





Fig. 50. 



rant the cost of more expensive appliances for locat- 
ing and babbitting the crank-shaft boxes or bearings, 
the jig shown in Figure 49 is certainly the most 
simple, accurate, and expeditious of any which has 
ever been devised for the purpose. 



84 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

The device which is shown in position in Figure 
49 and detached in the plan view (Figure 50) consists 
of two rings or bushings A A' turned (when the 
guides are bored) to fit the guides, and bored to fit the 
shaft B, a casting C bored at a to fit the shaft 
B (to which it is keyed), and bored also at b at 
right angles to the bore a to fit the babbitting man- 
drel D (which is, if preferred, held in the desired posi- 
tion by the set screw e). 

When preferred an L casting A (Figure 51) (in which 
the part a is turned to the size of the crank-shaft 
journal) may be used on the end of the shaft B for 
babbitting the near-side bearing c (Figure 49) of the 
crank shaft, locating and babbitting the off-side bear- 
ing d by means of the mandrel D (Figure 45), as 
already explained. 

The arrangement for locating the jig may be 
changed to suit the requirements or preferences in 
any particular case as follows : 

First. In place of the ring or bushing A (Figures 
49 and 50) the end of the shaft B may be made to fit 
into the gland or stuffing box of the cylinder head, or 
if the shaft B is smaller than the hole in the gland 
box, a bushing may be made to fit onto the end of 
the shaft and into the hole of the gland box, thereby 
affording an opportunity for gauging the distance 
from the center of the crank shaft to the center of the 
guides or cylinder. 

Second. To continue the shaft B through the 
gland box into the cylinder and substitute a ring or 
bushing which fits the bore of the cylinder for the 
ring A (Figures 49 and 50). 

In using this jig, place it in position, as shown in 
Figure 49, then gauge the distance from the center of 
the mandrel D to the center of the guides or cylinder, 
and then level the mandrel D with a spirit level to 
obtain the horizontal alignment of the same. By 



ERECTING. 



85 



this arrangement either one or both of the bearings 
for the crank shaft maybe poured as preferred, but 
usually the near-side bearing is poured (babbitted) first 
and then the mandrel D is ex- 
tended to reach across the boiler, 
and the off-side bearing d fitted too 
and babbitted thereon. The jig 
can then be removed and the bear- 
ings scraped to fit the mandrel D (as 
hereinbefore explained), or reamed to 
size, as desired. 

When the bearings are reamed 
to size (instead of being scraped 
to* fit the crank shaft or man- 
drel D, as above) a shell reamer, 
such as shown in Figure 52, 
is used, where A represents the 
shell reamer, which is bored to fit 
the guide bar B, and slotted on 
the end at E to engage with the 
driving pin E' on the guide 
bar B. 

Figure 53 shows the reamer in 
operation (with the bearings c d 
partly in section). Two guide rings 
or bushings C C are placed in the 
bearing c to guide and steady the 
guide bar B w T hile the bearing 
d is being reamed. 

The guide rings C C are then 
transferred to the bearing d and 
the reamer to the bearing c. and the operation 
repeated. 

If the reamer is properly made, a very smooth and 
true bearing can be made in this manner. 

Having finished the bearings for the crank shaft, 
the fitting of the traction mechanism should be pro- 




Fig. 52. Fig. 53. 



86 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



ceeded with before the assembling together of the 
other parts of the engine. 

In considering the various methods which are and 
may be successfully employed for locating and align- 
ing the shafts, etc., of the propelling mechanism of a 
traction engine we shall of necessity be compelled to 
confine ourselves to the consideration of one partic- 
ular type of engine, but in doing so, the type 
of engine selected is one which embodies in its 
construction all the well-known movements used on 
many types of traction engines, and therefore any 
appliance which is adapted to this type of engine can 
be readily adapted to accomplish the same purpose 
on any other type of engine. 

In illustrating the above appliances such parts 
only of the boiler and attachments will be shown as 
are absolutely necessary to an intelligent understand- 
ing of the devices and methods employed. 

In the type of engine selected for consideration 
the traction mechanism consists of a main axle for 
the road wheels and an over-shaft for the reducing 
gears. The differential and other gearing upon these 
two shafts is driven from the crank shaft by means of 
a side-shaft and bevel gears. The whole of this 
mechanism (with the exception of the side-shaft 
mentioned above) is located on the rear of the boiler, 
is mounted on springs, and fixed to and held in posi- 
tion by four (two on each side) vertical slide bars or 
rods which pass through the axle and over-shaft 
boxes and also through four (two on each side) corner 
(guide) brackets (which are bolted to the corners of 
the boiler) in which the slide bars are free to move 
up and down and by which they (the slide bars) are 
held in position. These guide, or as they are 
termed, " corner brackets " are located and aligned 
by means of a jig, Figure 54 showing end eleva- 
tion, and Figure 55 plan view of the jig in position 



ERECTING. 



87 



on the boiler. The jig consists of a plate A A' and 
two arms BB' into which are fixed eight vertical 
pins (the inner ones marked g and the outer ones 
marked g r ) which on the jig represent the vertical 
slide bars mentioned above. 

The jig plate A A' is first set on the rear end of 
the boiler, in a true vertical position, plumbing it 





Fig. 54. 



from the sides and back, centering it from the ver- 
tical center line e e (on the boiler) to lines drawn 
along the bottom of the sight holes f f, adjusting the 
plate by screwing the set screws a a' a" a!" (only those 
on one side of the plate being marked) in or out until 
each one just touches the boiler and there is no rock 
to the plate. The plate is held in position by the 
bolts b b' and. the cross plates c c'. The arms B B' are 
then placed and bolted in position on the plate A A' 
and aligned transversely by tramming from the 
center on each end of the mandrel D (in the crank- 



88 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



shaft bearings) to the centers of the outside vertical 
pins g' g' on the arm B, the adjustment being made 



! 
T 




.yfffcBfer m 



Fig. 58. 



Fig. 56. Fig. 57. 



by screwing the whole of the set screws on the right 
or left side of the plate A A' in or out as required. 
The corner brackets are then fitted onto the vertical 
pins gg f and also fitted closely to the side and back 



ERECTING. 89 

of the boiler shell, to which they are bolted, and the 
space between the boiler shell and the bracket rilled 
with molten spelter. 

The locating and aligning of the main axle 
and over-shaft (and their boxes) may be effected 
either with or without jigs or other special ap- 
pliances. 

When no jig or other special appliance is used the 
boxes are fitted directly to the axle and shaft with 
the vertical slide bars in position, using a spirit level 
for the horizontal alignment, and tramming from the 
centers of the mandrel D (in the crank-shaft bearings) 
to the centers of the axle and over-shaft, for the 
transverse alignment, using a pair of ordinary exten- 
sion trams for this purpose when nothing better 
is available. But whenever possible the bow trams 
shown in Figures 56 and 57 are preferable, 
the construction of these being such that no per- 
ceptible difference can occur in the distance 
between the tram points, owing to the sag of the 
tram bar, or the way in which the trams are 
held by the operator, such as frequently occurs when 
using trams of ordinary construction. 

When the axle and over-shaft have been correctly 
aligned, the boxes are prepared for and then bab- 
bitted, first securing them firmly in position on the 
vertical slide bars, in order that the alignment of the 
axle or shaft may not be impaired or the shafts 
cramped in the bearings when this is subsequently 
done. 

When jigs are employed for locating the axle, 
over-shaft, and their boxes, the jigs may be located 
either directly from the mandrel D or on the 
rear end of the boiler. In the latter case, this 
can be effected by removing the arms B B' from the 
jig plate A A' (Figures 54 and 55) and then bolting 
the arms B" B"', Figure 58, in position on the jig 






90 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



plate in the place thereof. As the jig plate A A' 
has already been aligned vertically (and as 
near as practicable transversely also) it will only 
be necessary to test the jig for the transverse 
alignment by tramming from the centers of the 
mandrel D to those of the mandrels E and F to 
be sure that they are correct. In fitting and babbitt- 
ing the axle and over-shaft boxes, the vertical slide 




Fig. 59. 



Fig. 60. 



bars should be in position all the time, and the posi- 
tion of the mandrels E and F on the jig plate AA' 
should be the same as the axle and over-shaft would 
be. When the jig is as in this case located on the 
rear of the boiler, the distance between the crank 
shaft and the mandrels E and F is to a certain extent 
immaterial. But when the jig is located directly 
from the mandrel D the distance from the crank shaft 
to the rear of the boiler should be regulated accord- 
ingly. Figures 59, 60 and 61 represent end and side 



ERECTING. 



91 



elevation and plan view respectively of a jig for 
locating the mandrels E and F direct from the man- 
drel D (crank shaft). By this arrangement the neces- 
sity of testing the correctness of the alignment of the 
mandrels E and F is obviated. It is only necessary to 
place the jig in position and then slide the mandrel 
D through the hubs b b r and the jig is located, adjust- 
ing the distance of the mandrels E and F from the 




Fig. 61. 



rear of the boiler by means of the set screws 
a a'. With either form of jig the mandrels E 
and F may be pushed in or out to facilitate the opera- 
tion of fitting the boxes as required. 

Figure 62 shows a plan view of a jig for locating the 
side shaft G for driving the traction (propelling) 
mechanism (of which mention has already been 
made) . This shaft runs in a longitudinal direction, 
parallel to the axis of the boiler from the off-side 
bearing d of the crank shaft D to the right-hand box 



92 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



d' of the over-shaft E and at right angles to both, 
the bearings for the side-shaft G spanning the bearing 
d and the box d' in the spaces e e', upon which they 
swing to allow for the up and down motion of the 
traction mechanism when the engine is on the road. 
The bearings for the side-shaft are fitted over the 
bearing and box d d' at e e' and then to the mandi* V 
G at f f ', upon which they are babbitted. 

The bearings for all the shafts having been fitted 




Fig. 62. 



and babbitted, it only remains then to remove the 
jigs and mandrels and assemble the various parts of 
the engine (which have usually been previously 
fitted ready for assembling by the vise and machine 
hands) together. 

The locating and babbitting mandrels which have 
been shown in connection with the above jigs may 
be dispensed with altogether, and the shafts, which 
form part of the mechanism, used in the place 
thereof, if desired, adapting the jigs to suit the shafts 



ERECTING. 



93 



instead of the mandrels. Another change which 
may be necessary is to make the hubs by which the 
jigs and mandrels are located and aligned in the 
form of split boxes or bearings to facilitate the appli- 
cation and removal of the jig to and from the crank 
shaft, and of the other shafts to and from the jig. 

The principle and construction of the foregoing 
jigs are such that these or a modification of some of 
these to adapt them to each particular case are applic- 
able to any and every type of portable, skid or trac- 
tion engine, and though but one type of engine has 
for convenience been employed in describing the con- 
struction and application of these jigs, the various 
forms shown for securing the same ends are such as 
have been and can be adapted to a wider range of 
machine and constructive work. 






94 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Erecting. — Continued. 

ERECTING AS APPLIED TO STATIONARY ENGINE WORK. 

Having already shown many of the principles and 
methods employed in constructive mechanics as 
applied to erecting, we can now proceed to the 
further consideration and development of these same 
principles and methods as adapted and applied to and 
in the construction of a higher grade of work. 

And in giving examples of the processes employed 
in the laying out and erecting of work of a higher 
order, it is thought best to let the work be of the 
various types and parts of stationary engines, and to 
let the types and parts selected be such as will 
represent, not engines alone, but a wider range of 
machine work. 

In the erection of horizontal engines we have to 
consider the following requirements : 

First. That the axes of all reciprocating and 
revolving parts must bear a fixed relation to those of 
the cylinder and crank shaft. 

Second. That the axis of the crank shaft should 
always be at right angles with the intersecting axis 
of the cylinder and guides. 

As the bed-plates of stationary engines are liable 
to be somewhat out of true through warpage or 
shrinkage in casting, it is imperatively necessary 
that a line should be drawn (stretched) through 
the (imaginary) axis of the cylinder and guides, 
to or beyond the center of the crank-shaft bear- 
ings, and that all surfaces that are to be machined 



ERECTING. 



95 



or cut to size should be measured and laid 
off from the above center line before any 
machine or other work is done upon the bed, to 
ascertain if there is a sufficiency of metal upon all 
surfaces to admit of each surface being cleaned or 
trued up to size. 

Should there prove to be a deficiency of metal on 
any particular surface or part, the position of the 
center line should be changed (if possible) to so con- 
form with the laying out of the work as to favor the 
faulty surface or part sufficiently to admit of its being 
cleaned or trued up to size. In laying out (some- 
times termed lining or marking out) work of any kind 
it is always good practice to so lay out the work that 
every part of the same 
can be trued (cleaned) up 
to size, throwing the whole 
of the rest of the lines 
towards the faulty spot or 
place if necessary, regard- 
less of how much or how 
little may have to come 
off any other part, so long 
as all can be trued up. 

Figure 63 shows a plan 
view of a center crank- 
engine bed and method 
of laying the same out 
ready for the planing. 
To determine the position 
of the center line, fit a 
piece of wood into the 
hole in the front of the 
bed at a; the center of the hole or of the projection 
(on the extreme front of the bed) is then obtained, a 
hole about f inch is drilled through the wood, as shown 
at a'; this hole is then covered on the outside with a tin 




Fig. 63. 



96 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

center-piece (which is merely a piece of tin cut square 
or oblong and large enough to cover the hole, the 
corners of which are bent so that they can be pressed 
into the wood to hold the center-piece in position). 
The center of the hole or projection is then laid off 
on the tin and a small hole drilled through the same 
exactly in the center with a scratch awl (scriber) or 
file tang, the point of which has been ground square ; 
this hole should be drilled just large enough to admit 
of the center line (cord) being passed through it. The 
center points bb r are then laid off in the crank-shaft 
bearings, and an adjustable center post c is attached 
to the bed by means of the cross-bar d ; a radial slit is 
then cut through the top of the post at c' just wide 
enough to allow of the center line (or cord) being 
inserted therein. The center line is then passed 
through the hole a' and a knot tied on the line to 
prevent it being drawn too far through the hole ; the 
line is then stretched taught and inserted in the slit 
c'; a knot is tied on this end of the line also, close to 
the post to hold the line in position. The insertion 
of the line through the hole a' ensures the exact 
alignment of the same in that end of the bed. The 
line is centered on the back or crank end of the 
bed by means of a pair of hermophrodite calipers, or 
with either of the wire trams shown in Figure 64, 
tramming from the center points b b r to the line for 
the longitudinal or lateral alignment, and for the 
horizontal alignment, measuring the height of the 
center a' (the engine bed resting on a platen or other 
level surface) by means of a surface gauge, and then 
making the height of the line the same at c r as at a', 
raising or lowering the center post c by screwing it 
out of, or into the cross-bar d, as required. 

The object of drawing the center line through the 
bed as shown above is twofold : 

First. To ascertain if there is sufficient stock 



ERECTING. 



97 



(metal) on the guides and all other parts that are to be 
planed or otherwise cut to size, and 

Second. That the center line may be used as a 
point from which the measurements can be made in 
planing up the guides, the ends of the crank-shaft 
bearings, and any other parts that are to be planed, 
faced, or bored, and it is also utilized in setting, on the 
planer or other machines. When for any reason it is 
necessary to remove the center line before it is finally 




Fig. 64. 

dispensed with, it can be readily slipped out of the 
slit c' without disturbing the post c, and afterwards 
when it is reinserted in the slit it is in line again 
without any resetting. 

In many engines of this class the lower guides are 
either cast on and form a part of the bed, or else the 
guides are separate pieces resting upon planed sur- 
faces on the bed. 

In either case these surfaces are planed to a definite 
distance below or above the center line (or axes of the 
cylinder and crank shaft). Such being the case, when 
the planing has been done on the bed, the guides (or 
the planed surface upon which the guides rest) can 
and should always be utilized as a base for locating 



98 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



and aligning the jigs and other appliances used for 
babbitting or boring and facing the bearings and 
other parts of the bed. 

When engines are built in quantities, a platen or 
bed-plate of suitable size, mounted on a good founda- 
tion, should be placed on the erecting floor, or a 
separate bed-plate or platen which can be moved 
whenever required should be provided for the use of 
the erector to facilitate the various operations on the 
engine beds. 

One of the least expensive appliances employed for 
holding and aligning the babbitting mandrel or 




Fig. 65. 

crank shaft while the bearings for the latter are being 
fitted and babbitted is shown in Figures 65 and 66, 
which represent a side and end elevation of the 
device in position ready for babbitting the bearings; 
D is the babbitting mandrel, a band a 7 b' adjustable 
V brackets mounted on a slotted parallel c which is 
placed under the engine bed in line with the center 
of the bearings, f (Figure 65) shows end view of 
plain parallel which pairs with the parajlel c. The 
transverse alignment of the mandrel D is obtained by 
squaring from the guides (after the guides are planed), 
or by placing a straight edge across the face of the 
projection A (Figure 65) (after the latter has been 
faced or turned), and then tramming from the 



Erecting. 



99 



straight edge to the mandrel. When the device is to 
be used on a larger-sized engine bed, the bolts g g' 
are taken out and the V plates a a' raised as much as 
required by inserting the bolts g g' in some other of 
the holes (shown by dotted lines at e e')» 

The projection A and the bore B (shown by dotted 
lines) (Figure 65) are faced or turned off and bored to 
receive the back cylinder head and the cylinder, as 
will be hereinafter explained. 

Though the above device is inexpensive to make 
and can by spacing the holes e e' correctly (or by 




Fig. 66. 



substituting longer plates for the V plates a a') be 
used for the purpose stated for several sizes of engine 
beds, it is not self-aligning, and for that reason is 
not as good for the purpose as other devices which 
are self-aligning. 

As already stated, the guides can be used as a base 
from which all the jigs and other appliances (em- 
ployed in the various operations on the engine bed) 
may be located and self-aligned. 

Figure 67 shows method of locating and aligning 
the mandrel for babbitting the crank-shaft bearings 
of a center crank engine (using the same reference 
letters to designate the same parts, as hereinbefore 
employed in Figures 49 and 50). A A' represents 
the guide blocks, planed to fit the guides, and held in 



PC. 






100 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



place by the bolts for the upper guide bars, or other- 
wise held in place by straps and bolts (when the holes 
for the guide-bar bolts have not as yet been drilled). 

Instead of aligning the 
mandrel D horizontally by 
means of a spirit level, it 
is self-aligned by means of 
a key or feather fitted in 
one or both of the guide 
blocks A A', and a key-way 
cut in the guide shaft B. 
If the diameter of the 
guide shaft B is made as 
large as can be consistently 
employed between the 
guides of a small-sized en- 
gine bed, and the size and 
bore of the T casting C is 
made large enough to take 
in the mandrel D for a 
larger (or the largest) size 
of engine bed, this appli- 
ance can be used on several (if not all) of 
the different sizes of engines made in the shop, 
by using bushings to reduce the size of the bore of 
the T casting C to that of the babbitting mandrel D, 
and by having a pair of the guide blocks A A' for 
each size of engine bed, or by making one pair of 
guide blocks do for two sizes of engine beds, as shown 
in Figure 68 which represents an end view of the 
guide blocks A A' as made for 
two sizes of engines, by planing 
the lower half a of the block 
(below the center line b) to fit 
the guides of a small-sized 
engine bed, and the upper half c of the block to fit in 
the guides of the next (larger) sized engine bed. 




Fig. 67. 




Fig. 68. 



ERECTING. 



101 



Of course it will be understood that a separate bab- 
bitting mandrel D will be required for each size of 
engine bed or crank shaft. 

Another form of jig for locating the babbitting 
mandrel D is shown in position on the engine bed in 
Figure 69. The jig as therein shown consists of one 
casting, planed to fit the guides, and extending to 




Fig. 69. 



the crank-shaft bearings, where it terminates in the 
form of a hub. The cross-plates A A' and the exten- 
sion plate or arm B and hub C are equivalent in this 
instance to the guide blocks A A', guide shaft B, and 
hub C of Figure 67. 

This is an excellent device, is self locating and 
aligning, and fills the requirements in every particu- 
lar, but as it is necessary when this form of jig is 
employed to make a separate jig for each size of 
engine bed, it therefore lacks the advantage possessed 
by the jig shown in Figure 67, of being applicable to 
more than one size of engine bed. 

In a large proportion of horizontal and vertical 



102 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



stationary engines, the valve stem (rod) is connected 
to a slide attached to the side of the engine bed, the 
slide being operated direct from the eccentrics. In 
order that all the eccentric and valve connections 
can be made interchangeable, the position and align- 
ment of the slide must be exact. To expediate the 
fitting and babbitting (if the bearings are lined with 
babbitt) of the slide and bearings for the same, the 
jig E and mandrel F, shown in Figure 70, are employed. 
The jig, as shown therein, is located 
and held in position on the guide 
shaft B by means of the hubs a a' 
and arms bb' which extend over 
the side of the bed to locate and 
hold the mandrel F while the 
bearings c c' are fitted and bab- 
bitted. In other cases the jigs are 
located directly on the guide or 
guides. 

Similar jigs may be used for the 
rocker arms or shafts, when rockers 
are employed for actuating the 
valve and connections for the same. 
In nearly all engines of this class 
the cylinder is bolted on the front 
end of the engine bed. The back 
cylinder head is fitted into the 
bored recess B (Figures 65 and 66) 
of the engine bed, and fitted into 
the cylinder in the usual way, the studs in the back 
end of the cylinder passing through the cylinder 
head and projection of the engine bed, the whole 
being held together by the nuts on the inside of the 
bed. 

The boring and facing of the projection on the 
front of the bed is usually done on a special boring 
machine; and though this operation does not in 




Fig. 70. 



■ERECTING. 



L03 



general practice come within the province of the 
erector, still there are many instances where the 




D^Cc^DiDiD 



Wig. 71. 



a 



erector has to do all the w T ork required on the bed 

except the planing. In such cases, if the boring and 

facing is not done on the boring machine, 

or on a large lathe, some special device 

termed a "boring rig" is employed for 

this purpose. The boring rig shown in 

Figure 71 w T as designed for w r ork of this 

description and can be employed for 

boring and facing heavy work in almost 

any position. 

In the figure the boring rig- is shown 
in position ready for facing or turning off 
the projection on the front of the bed, and 
consists of a boring bar B, which is located 
and guided by the guide blocks A A', a 
sliding tool post C (of which an end and 
front elevation is shown in Figure 72), 
the driving mechanism D, and pulley E, 
and a feed screw and bracket F, the 
boring rig, together with the bed, being fixed on 
the erecting platen. In facing off the front of the 
bed the tool is fed across the work by a star feed, 




Fig. 72. 



104 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



and, in boring, the tool is fed through the work by 
the screw feed F. 

When the boring and facing of the front end of the 
bed is completed, the boring bar should be withdrawn 
and the bed, if a small one, should be swung around 
on the platen and the crank-shaft bearings brought 
into line with the boring bar to bore out the bearings ; 
but if the bed is a large one, instead of turning the 
bed on the platen, the boring bar and attachments 
should be fixed transversely across the platen 
and brought into line to bore out the bearings. 
Where any of the preceding babbitting appliances 
have been used for babbitting the bearings, the boring 
rig, as shown in position in Figure 73, ready for bor- 




Fig. 73. 

ing the bearings, can be aligned transversely by means 
of the jig in the same manner as the babbitting man- 
drel or the boring bar can be transversely aligned by 
squaring from the guides, or by placing a straight 
edge across the faced projection on the front of the 
bed, and then tramming from the straight edge to 
the boring bar. 

An additional bracket is required at G to support 
and guide the boring bar (in place of the blocks A A' 




ERECTING. 105 

used when boring and facing the projection on the 
front of the bed), and an extension bracket F takes the 
place of the bracket F of Figure 71. The boring tools 
are shown at a a' ready for starting a cut through the 
bearings. When the bearings are lined with babbitt 
(babbitted) the babbitt lining should be hammered 
well down (with the peen of a hammer) to the boxes 
all around, or in lieu thereof a roller tool, such as 
shown in Figure 74, should 
be inserted in the bar in 
the place of the boring 
tools a a'; the roller is then 
set out, to describe a circle 
about 1-16 inch larger than Fig. 74. 

the bore of the bearings (in 

the rough) ; and when the roller is fed through the 
bearings, the babbitt-metal will be compressed and 
the bore enlarged to an amount equal to whatever 
the roller has been set out. The bearings are then 
bored out, and the ends of the boxes faced off, if 
preferred, by means of the boring bar instead of 
planing them off. 

By placing parallels of suitable size under the 
smaller-sized engine beds, and making the height of 
the boring bar (and rig) suitable for the largest-sized 
engine bed, this boring rig can be used for doing all 
the boring and facing that has to be done on every 
size of engine bed made in the shop. 

The boring rig is driven in both positions by a belt 
from a counter-shaft placed lengthwise of, and above 
the platen in such a manner that when boring the 
bearings the belt is crossed, and when boring and 
facing the projection on the front of the bed the belt 
runs straight. The pulley on the counter-shaft is 
movable as necessitated by the adjustment required 
for the various sizes of engine beds. 

If a flexible shaft is available, it is much better 



106 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

than a belt for driving the boring rig, and it can also 
be used for doing all the drilling required on the beds. 
The counter-shaft can also be used for driving the 
drilling attachment if a round belt is employed, and 
provision is made (by means of weighted idler pul- 
leys) for shortening or lengthening the belt as 
required. 

On vertical engine work, the horizontal and trans- 
verse alignment of the crank shaft is always at right 
angles to the planed surfaces of the valve seat and 
steam chest, and to get the alignment of the crank 
shaft exact without special tools or appliances is a 
job requiring considerable patience and mechanical 
ability. The ordinary method of doing this is to put 
a pulley or disc on the mandrel used for babbitting the 
bearings (when the bearings are babbitt lined) or on 
the crank shaft (when the bearings are babbitted 
directly on the crank shaft), and then to hold a 
straight edge across the rim of the pulley or disc, and 
another straight edge transversely across the valve 
seat or planed edges of the steam chest, then to sight 
from the upper to the lower straight edge, twisting 
the mandrel or crank shaft in either direction until 
the lower straight edge is in line with the upper 
straight edge. In other cases where the cylinder is 
a separate casting, bolted on the top of the frame, the 
crank-shaft bearings may be aligned and bored first, 
and the cylinder and steam chest located from the 
crank shaft by means of straight edges, etc., as ex- 
plained above. 

For locating the babbitting mandrel first the V 
brackets shown in Figures 65 and 66 maybe employed, 
provided they are mounted on' a suitable platen or 
base plate. 

A modification of the babbitting jig shown in 
Figure 67 to adapt it to the vertical style of engines, 
makes it the most efficient appliance that can be em- 



ERECTING. 



107 



ployed for this purpose, securing at once the perfect 
alignment of the mandrel D in all directions. 

Figure 75 shows the jig in position as adapted and 
applied to a vertical engine (similar reference letters 
denoting the same parts as 
heretofore) ; the guide ring A' 
(shown partly by dotted lines) 
is made to fit the counterbore 
on top of cylinder, thereby 
serving two purposes, namely, 
to determine the distance from 
the axis of the crank- shaft to 
the center of the cylinder and 
guides, and to assist in locat- 
ing the guide shaft B ( to which 
it is held by a key or nut) 
concentric with the cylinder 
and guides when the guides 
are bored, a guide block 
fitted to the guides in place of 
the guide ring A serving the 
same purpose when other 
forms of guides are employed. 
The mandrel D is aligned 
transversely by means of an 
arm E and a bracket H. The 
hub F of the arm is keyed to 
the guide shaft B and a cross- 
plate G is fitted on the other 
end of the arm on the same 
transverse line as the valve 
seat and bracket H. The 
bracket H is bolted to the 
planed edges of the steam chest or to the valve seat 
itself. As there may be a slight variation in the dis- 
tance from the center of the cylinder to the valve seat 
or the planed edges of the steam chest, on different 




Fig. 75. 









108 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

engines the cross-plate G is made adjustable on the 
arm E to compensate for any variation that may 
exist. 



109 



CHAPTER IX. 

Erecting. — Continued. 

DRIFT PIN AND DRIFT WEDGE FOR REMOVING PISTON 
RODS FROM THE CROSS-HEADS. 

Figure 76 represents a strap, drift pin, and drift 
wedge employed for driving cross-heads and piston 
rods apart in those cases where the piston rod termi- 
nates in the form of a taper shank inserted in the taper 
bore of the cross-head, both being held together by a 



(r\ 






W 

Fig. 76. 




Fig. 77. 



taper key driven through the cross-head and rod. 
This form of connection is almost exclusively 
employed in locomotive practice, and to some extent 
on stationary engine work also. 

As shown in the side view (Figure 76), the device 



110 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

consists of a strap a to which the drift pin b is 
welded, and a drift wedge c. 

Figure 77 shows the cross-head (partly in section) 
and piston rod, with the strap and drift wedge in 
position thereon, A representing the cross-head, B cross- 
head pin, C piston rod, D taper shank of the same, a 
strap, b drift pin, c drift wedge. The strap a serves 
to hold the drift pin b in position against the end of 
the taper shank D, and it also serves to protect 
the cross-head pin B when driving the wedge c. 
This device is simple, easy to make, and when the 
drift wedge is not given too much taper is as efficient 
as any employed for this purpose. 

BALANCING PULLEYS AND ROTARY PARTS OF 
MACHINERY. 

Pulleys are usually balanced upon an arbor inserted 
in the bore of the pulley after it has been bored and 
turned. The pulley and arbor are then placed on 
balancing ways which are either improvised for the 
occasion, or specially constructed for the purpose. In 
either case the balancing ways are first leveled 
separately, then together, and then when the arbor 
and pulley are placed upon the ways, the heavy side 
or part of the pulley will cause it to turn on the ways 
until the heavy side is on the bottom. Strips or 
plates of iron, equal in weight to whatever the 
pulley is out of balance, are then riveted or screwed 
to the inside of the pulley, diametrically opposite the 
heavy place. It does not necessarily follow though, 
that when a pulley is apparently in perfect standing 
balance it will be the same when running, for it 
may be out of balance considerably when running. 
Sometimes this can be remedied by putting the balanc- 
ing strip or plate in the same relative position on the 
inside of the pulley, but on the opposite side of the 



ERECTING. 



Ill 



arms ; at other times it may be necessary to change 
the position or weight of the balancing piece alto- 
gether, in order to get a perfect running balance. 

It frequently happens that a pulley is apparently 
in perfect balance, both standing and running, while 
it is being balanced, but when it is placed in position 
on the line or other shaft it will wabble and act as 
though it had never been balanced at all. The cause 
of this lies in the fact that the pulley really is some- 
what out of balance, but to such a slight degree that 
when running singly it is not perceptible ; but if it 
happens that the pulley is placed on the shaft along- 
side or in the proximity of one or more pulleys that 
are out of balance to a similar extent, the aggregated 
amount that both or the whole of the pulleys are out 
of balance will, when the heaviest parts are all in one 
line, produce a noticeable effect, which can only be 
remedied by turning one or more pulleys on the 
shaft, whereby one unbalanced pulley is made to 
counterbalance the other. When there is only one or 
a few pulleys to be balanced, the balancing ways may 
be improvised for the occasion by placing long nar- 
row parallels, such as are used on the planing 
machine, upon a pair of wooden trestles (horses), and 
then leveling them together, and separately, then 
balancing the pulley thereon, as already explained. 
When there are many pulleys to be balanced, special 
balancing ways made for this purpose should be used. 
One form of these, shown in Figure 78, consists of a 
cross-bar A (planed parallel on the top and slightly 
beveled on the sides) and three legs B B r B" with 
thumb screws C C C" in the feet to level the balanc- 
ing ways by. This form of balancing ways are as 
good as any with which we are acquainted ; they are 
easy to make, and can be set and adjusted anywhere 
in a few minutes. 

Armatures, cylinders, or beater drums for threshing 



112 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



machines, and all similar rotating parts of machinery- 
are first balanced on the balancing ways (in the 
manner explained) and afterward balanced for the 
running balance, either in the frame of the machine of 
which it forms a part, or in a balancing frame speci- 
ally constructed for the purpose. The latter frame is 
usually made of wood of a size suitable to take in the 
work to be balanced, or is made adjustable to take in 




Fig. 78. 

work of different sizes, and the bearings are either 
made the right size for the journals of the work, or are 
made V shaped to take in work of any size. The 
work is placed in the balancing frame, and after put- 
ting a pulley and belt on, it is gradually speeded and 
balanced until it will run smoothly at a velocity 
which exceeds that at which it is intended to be run 
by from three to five per cent. When first starting to 
run and balance the work, the upper half of the bear- 
ings are left on, but before the work is said to be in 
perfect balance the upper half of the bearings are left 
off altogether, and the work run at full speed without 
any other support than the lower half of the bearings. 



ERECTING. 



113 



Having shown the methods employed for locating 
and aligning the different parts of machinery in al- 
most every conceivable position during the fitting and 
erecting of the same, it only remains for the author to 
add that in these days of close competition it is absc^ 
lutely necessary that every available appliance which 
can be used to expediate, facilitate, and reduce the 
cost in the manufacture of machinery of every de- 
scription should be adopted and employed to that end. 
Want of space will not admit of our giving more ex- 
tended examples of the application of special appli- 
ances employed in the erecting of many other kinds of 
machinery, nor would it be advisable to do so, as it 
would, to a certain extent, only be a repetition of 
what has already been shown. As, for instance, the 
jigs and appliances for boring the hubs (bearings) in 
which the various shafts of the driving mechanism of 
a planing machine run are located in the V's of the 
planer bed, and are so arranged that the position of 
each shaft is definitely determined. The position of 
the feed rods and screws is determined in the same 
way by jigging from the slides of the cross- rail. 

And on lathe work the position of each part of the 
feed and screw cutting mechanism in the carriage and 
apron attached thereto is determined by jigs fitted into 
the shear V's of the carriage or directly upon the apron 
itself, and the bearings for the spindles in the head 
and tail stock are bored in perfect alignment by 
means of special jigs or fixtures placed on the shears 
of the lathe bed, at each end of the head or tail stock ; 
or, what amounts to the same thing, boring the head 
and tail stock on a machine having a supplementary 
platen attached thereon w T ith shears which are an 
exact duplicate of the lathe shears. In this manner 
any machine and all the parts thereof can be made 
strictly interchangeable, and by selecting the principal 
shafts or planed surfaces of a machine or part as a 



114 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

basis a jig or other appliance can be attached thereon 
in such a manner as to serve any purpose desired. 

On certain kinds of work it may happen that there 
is no shaft or surface to which a jig or other appliance 
can be affixed, or that, when such do exist, the shaft or 
surface is insufficient to serve as a base for the at- 
tachment of the jig, and in other instances it may be 
possible to arrange the jig to better advantage or to 
extend its usefulness by making it to assist in or cover 
other operations on the work by casting separate 
lugs, bars, or depressions on the work for the attach- 
ment of the jig or appliance. In some cases these 
lugs or bars are left on the work for future reference 
or use, but as a rule they are broken or cut off after 
they have served their purpose. 

Then again there are instances where the work can 
be operated on to better advantage by inclosing the 
work entirely within the jig or appliance. And so it 
often happens that when a particular piece of work 
has to be jigged, etc., that no precedent of a like 
nature can be' found that will serve as a guide in 
designing and constructing a jig or other appliance 
for the work, but that a special jig or appliance must 
be designed and constructed for the purpose required. 



115 



CHAPTER X. 

Planing, Shaping, Slotting, 
principles and methods of chucking the work. 

One of the first and most important considerations 
in connection with planer work is the methods 
employed in chucking (holding) the work on the 
platen or work table, and the principles which 
should govern these methods. The mere fact of 
being able to clamp or hold the work securely on the 
machine while it is being operated on will not suffice 
in itself; the work should be clamped in such a way 
as not to cause any strains upon it whatever. It is 
well understood that the shape of work, and 
especially of cast-iron work, will sometimes change 
when a cut has been taken over it to remove the 
scale on the outer surface, thereby releasing it from 
any internal strains acquired in casting. And mak- 
ing all due allowance for such being the case, still it 
has been frequently demonstrated that the work is 
more often sprung by improper clamping than from 
any other cause, as fully evidenced by the many 
practical devices and inventions for equalizing the 




Fig. 79. 



work in clamping fixtures while it is being operated 
on. To illustrate this more fully, let it be supposed 
that the bar W (Figure 79) has to be planed on the 



116 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

surfaces A B, and as we only wish to show the effect 
produced on the work by improper clamping, we 
shall disregard the ordinary and special forms of 
chucks employed for holding such work, and clamp 
the work (bar) directly to the platen. Figure 80, 
represents a side view of the work clamped on the 
ends to the platen; A A' the bolts and plates by 



^jVf^jr - ^■-•*f ^z££jLjtk I ' t 



:v.r.'_viii 



Fig. 80. 

which the work is held, B B' stops to brace the latter, 
W work, P platen. 

If the work is clamped so that the points a a' of 
the plates bear on the work below the median line C 
(shown by dotted lines), the result is that the work 
may be sprung in the direction indicated by the 
arrows b b' sufficiently to raise the work from the 
platen at c to an appreciable extent, and consequently 
when the pressure of the clamp is relieved after the 
planing, the surface of the work will be hollow to 
whatever extent the work was sprung in clamping. 
Then, if on reversing the work to plane the opposite 
side the same improper method of clamping is 
followed, the result will be that, when the work is 
finished (planed), it will be thinner in the center than 
on the ends. But if, on the other hand, the pressure 
on the ends of the work is applied at the points a a', 
above the median line C, as shown in Figure 81, the 
result will be that the work is firmly bedded on the 
platen throughout its entire length, the strains, if 
any, being in the direction indicated by the arrows 
bb', and the tendency to bed the work on the under 



PLANING, SHAPING, SLOTTING. 



117 



side (in the middle of its length) at c before it is 
bedded on the ends, and consequently the work will 
be perfectly true in nearly every instance. 

Another practical application of this same principle 
is shown in Figure 82, which represents an improved 



*J?K^=** 



-£ 



w- 



::.-.-■&>. 



A 






Fig. 81. 

method of chucking thin work in the planer or shaper 
chuck. As therein shown, the work W is held in the 
chuck A A' on the top of a parallel B by means of the 
chucking plates C C, one end of which is inserted in 
a groove cut along the inner surface and near the top 
of each jaw of the chuck at a a'. The pressure being 




Fig. 82. 



applied above the median line of the work prevents it 
from buckling (as the springing of the work is termed) 
in the center in the manner shown in Figure 80. 
The manner of grooving the chuck jaws for the inser- 
tion of the chucking plates C C and the direction in 
which the pressure is exerted on the work will be 
better understood by referring to Figure 83, which 
represents a partial side view of one end of the chuck 
and work. 



118 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 




Fig. 83. 



A large variety of work can be chucked in this 
manner and operated on to 
much better advantage than when 
simply held between the jaws 
of the chuck. With special chuck- 
ing devices, work of every de- 
scription can be chucked or held 
in such a manner that the strains 
produced in chucking can be 
equalized, or at least minimized, in all directions. 
The importance of this subject is now so clearly appre- 
ciated, that in many of the larger establishments the 
chucking appliances form a very prominent part of the 
shop's equipment. And when such chucking appli- 
ances are intelligently employed, the necessity of 
loosening and then rechucking the work after a cut 
has been taken over it to remove the scale (for the 
purpose already explained) is always lessened, and in 
most cases is entirely obviated. 



119 



CHAPTER XL 

Planing, Shaping, Slotting. — Continued. 

CHUCKING TAPER WORK. 

There are several ways in which taper work may 
be chucked. In some forms of chucks one of the jaws 
is made adjustable and is therefore suited to hold 
either straight or taper work, but when the jaws of 
the chuck are not adjustable other means must be em- 
ployed for holding the work. Take as an example a 
connecting-rod key. If there is only one key to be 
planed, the key is laid on a parallel piece of suitable 
size and the chuck tightened up until it just grips the 
key on the broad end. A small piece of blocking 
is then interposed between the jaw of the chuck and 




Fig. 84. 

the narrow end of the key, and the chuck is tightened 
up sufficiently to hold the work firmly. When there 
are two or more keys to be planed they are chucked as 
parallel pieces by reversing the tapers of the keys. 

The method of holding taper work shown in Fig- 
are 84 is very simple and may be used for holding 



FT 



120 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



work of any taper. The work is held by means of a 
semicircular chucking piece interposed between the 
sliding jaw of the chuck and the work, A A represent- 
ing the chuck, B the work, C semicircular chucking 
piece, D parallel placed under the work to act as a 
support and to align it horizontally. 

A similar semicircular chucking piece may be 
employed for holding taper work in the vise while it is 
being fitted, and will be found to be as handy as any 
tool- the vise workman possesses. 

MONITOR CHUCK. 

The monitor chuck shown in Figures 85 and 86 
may justly be regarded as the "ne plus ultra" of 
chucking devices, for of all the appliances employed 
in machine-shop practice there is none more capable 




srrs 




Fig. 85. 

of such a wide range of application in the various 
operations and processes as this is. 

Figure 85 represents a front and Figure 86 a side 
elevation (partly in section) of the chuck. The 
angle plate A is bored at a to receive the revolving 
chucking plate B, which is held by the washer C 
and the binding screw L. 



PLANING, SHAPING, SLOTTING. 



121 



The work is clamped to the chucking plate B in 
such manner that, on revolving the chucking plate 
and work, each surface to be operated on can be 
brought into position in succession for the operation. 
The angles at which the different parts of the work 
are presented is predetermined by means of the index 
pin E, which is inserted in the angle plate A at b and 
in the index holes of the chucking plate B, the 
holes in the latter being spaced according to the 
number and position of the surfaces and parts (on the 
work) to be operated on. 

PLANING CONNECTING-ROD BRASSES AND CROSS-HEADS 
ON THE MONITOR CHUCK. 

The next engraving, Figure 87, shows the method 




Fig. 87. 

of chucking connecting-rod brasses for planing on 
the monitor chuck A B (Figures 85 and 86), and 



122 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



shaper platen D. The brasses C are held in place on 
the revolving plate B by means of the washer E and 
bolt and nut F. G represents the tool, in position for 
planing the upper surfaces of the brasses. It will be 
plainly seen that when the upper surfaces of the 
brasses have been planed, if the plate B and work are 
given a quarter turn, the next side of the brasses will 
be brought into position ready for planing, and so on 
until the brasses are finished. 




Fig, 88. 



Figure 88 represents the method of chucking a 
cross-head for planing, on the same monitor chuck. 
The cross-head is held in place on the revolving plate 
B by means of the washer E and bolt and nut F. It (the 
cross-head) is also supported and aligned on the under 
side by means of the adjustable parallels G H. As 
the method of operating has been described there is 
no need for repeating it. 



123 



CHAPTER XII. 



Planing, Shaping, Slotting. — Continued. 



SUPPLEMENTARY CHUCKING PLATES. 



Supplementary chucking plates or work tables are 
employed to facilitate the operation of planing such 
work as would otherwise have to be released and re- 
chucked in order to bring other surfaces of the work 
into position for the planing when one surface has 
been finished. The work is chucked or held on the 
supplementary chucking plate (instead of chucking it 
on the planer platen) in such manner that as many 
surfaces as possible may be brought in succession into 
position for the planing by swiveling or changing 
the position of the supplementary plate on the platen, 
instead of resetting the work for each surface. 

These supplementary chucking plates are divided 
into two classes, viz., simple and compound; the 
simple form consisting of a single plate, and the com- 
pound form of two or more plates, the latter some- 
times being made in the form of a cross-slide. Both 
the simple and compound forms can be made square, 
rectangular, or round, as required or preferred. 

As a rule the different surfaces to be planed gener- 
ally stand on a line with the longitudinal axis of the 
work, or at right angles to the same, and the methods 
employed for self-aligning the plate and work when 
changing the position for the different surfaces to be 



124 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



planed are threefold, viz., first, by doweling ; second, 
by indexing, and third, by graduating the plates. 

Figure 89 shows a perspective view of the under 
side of a supplementary chucking plate (of the single 
form) A, and planer platen B B' (partly in section), 
with the dowel-pins abed passing through the plate 
from the upper side into the T slots of the platen. As 
shown in the figure the plate is located in one position 
at B by doweling into the first and fifth T slots of the 
platen, and as shown at B r (by dotted lines), by dow- 
eling into the second and fourth T slots for the other 
position, such an arrangemeut being rendered neces- 
sary when the nature of the work is such that the 




— c s - s-- ! *T- 



Fig. 89. 



dowel-pins would be covered by the work and could 
not be inserted or removed (if located elsewhere) in 
changing the position of the plate and work on the 
platen, or when the plate A is rectangular. 

This form of chucking plate, though quite common, 
is by no means as convenient and reliable as the 
monitor or round form of chucking plate. 

The principal reason for compounding in all forms 
of these supplementary chucking plates is to supply a 
means for pivoting the upper plate in the center, and 
indexing or graduating it on the periphery. 



PLANING, SHAPING, SLOTTING. 



125 



By referring to Figure 90, which represents a 
(simple) supplementary chucking plate of the round 
or monitor form, it will be seen that the above feat- 
ures may be embodied in the simple form of chucking 
plates with the same facility as in the compound 




Fig. 90. 



forms. This is accomplished by swiveling the plate 
on a pivot pin located in the center and on the under 
side of the same in either of two ways, viz., first, by 
inserting the pivot pin directly in the plate, and 




Fig. 91. 

drilling the pivot pin-hole in the planer platen, as 
shown in Figure 91; where A represents the chucking 
plate (sectional side view cut through the center of plate 
and platen), B platen, C pivot pin, inserted in the chuck- 
ing plate at a, and in the pin-hole (in the platen) at b. 
The chief objection to this method of inserting the 
pivot pin in the plate is that the plate must of neces- 
sity always be fixed in the same position on the 



126 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

planer platen, thereby occasioning excessive wear on 
some parts of the planer more than on others. 

In the second form shown in Figure 92, which 




Fig. 92. 

represents a sectional side view of the chucking plate 
A and platen B, with adjustable pivot pin C, this 
objection is entirely removed. As shown therein, the 
adjustable pivot pin C is inserted in the center T slot 
of the platen, and may be located anywhere in the 
slot. It is held firmly in position in the slot by 
means of the bolt and nut a a', the tongue b fitting 
into the T slot of the platen. The chucking plate is 
indexed by grooving it on the under side, as shown at 
D E (Figure 90), in such manner that by bringing one 
or the other of the grooves into line with the T slot 
the plate can be located in the position desired and 
retained in such position by means of the index pin 
F, which is made preferably T shaped, the smaller 
diameter fitting the T slot of the platen, and the 
larger diameter fitting the groove in the plate. The 
plate is held by means of the bolts and straps a b c, 
one end of which is inserted in groove C. 

PLANING KEY-SEATS IN CRANK SHAFTS. 

Referring again to the subject of shaft governors 
for steam engines, as described in Chapter III, we 
can now show the methods employed for locating the 
key-seats (for the governor wheel or disc) in the crank 
shaft, so that the position of the governing mech- 
anism shall bear a definite relation to that of the 
crank or crank pin. For convenience in planing, the 



PLANING, SHAPING, SLOTTING. 



127 



position of the key-seat in the crank shaft is always 
fixed so as to be either in a direct line with the verti- 
cal axes of the crank shaft and crank pin (when the 
crank is either above or below the center of the shaft) 
or at an angle of 90 degrees to the same. In planing 
the key- ways, the crank shaft is always chucked or 
held in the ordinary V chucking blocks, either on the 
planer platen or on a supplementary chucking plate, 
which ensures the correct horizontal and longitudi- 
nal alignment of the shaft; and as the crank-shaft 
journals and crank pins are always made on the 
interchangeable plan, when the first crank is set to the 




Fig. 93. 

correct angle, it is an easy matter to fit a distance 
piece under or against the crank pin in such manner 
that it will not only serve to support the weight of 
the crank pin but will also definitely locate and 
determine the correct angle at which to cut the key- 
seats in all the subsequent crank shafts of the same 
class. When the key-seat is cut at (90 degrees) right 
angles to the co-axes of the crank shaft and pin, the 
axes should be set on in the same horizontal line, as 
shown in Figure 93, where the crank shaft B is 



128 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



represented as being held in the V chucking blocks 
C C on the monitor chucking plate A with the dis- 
tance piece D supporting the crank pin E and locat- 
ing it at the correct angle at the same time, the key- 
seats F F f having been already cut. 

When the key-seat comes in a direct line with the 
co-axes of the shaft and pin, the position of the pin 
(and key-seat) is obtained by causing it to abut 
against a distance piece fixed in an angle plate 
(or arranged otherwise, as preferred), as shown in 
Figure 94, which represents an end view of the 
same shaft, chucking appliances, etc., with the crank 




Fig. 94. 



pin E (in section as cut through the center) abut- 
ting against the distance piece D, which is fixed 
in the angle plate G. 

When the key-seats are milled instead of being 
planed, the same methods of determining the position 
of the key-seats may be employed, with whatever 
modifications are necessary to adapt it to the differ- 
ences existing in the two machines. Another method 
which is sometimes employed for the same purpose is 
a template with one end bifurcated so as to span or 
clasp the crank pin, the other end being fitted to the 
crank shaft in such manner that both sides of the 
key-seat can be laid off (marked) therefrom. 



129 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Planing, Shaping, Slotting.- — Continued. 

CHUCKING ENGINE BEDS, CYLINDERS, ETC., FOR PLANING. 

Vertical engine frames having flat guides, and 
other surfaces which require planing, and cylinders 
having plane surfaces (to which the steam chest is 
bolted), and all similar work is usually planed on an 
arbor, mounted on V chucking blocks on the platen 
of the planer after the w T ork has been bored, the arbor 
being fitted concentric with the bore of the work to 
ensure the correct alignment of the planed surfaces 
with the bore. Horizontal engine beds, rectangular 




Fig. 95. 

steam chests, in which are used valves of the piston 
type, and similar work is preferably planed before it 
is bored, the bore being aligned with the planed 
surfaces. 

Figure 95 shows the method of chucking the frame 






130 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



for a vertical engine (in this case the cylinder, steam 
chest, guides, and standards are cast in one piece). 
The chucking arbor A is aligned with the bore of 
the cylinder and guides by means of the guide ring 
B, which is fitted into the counterbore of the cylinder 
(the guide ring may be turned [stepped] in such man- 
ner as to fit the counterbores of several sizes of 
cylinders), and the guide bar C, which is cast on the 
frame and bored out for this purpose (and afterwards 
broken off). The frame E is shown in position for 




Fig. 96. 

planing the boss D, and is held by means of the 
prop and clamp F. 

For planing detached cylinders, etc., the arbor A is 
aligned with the bore and mounted on the V blocks 
G G' in the same way as above. 

Figure 96 shows the method of chucking horizontal 
engine beds for planing the under side or base. The 
front (semicircular) part of the bed A rests in a shal- 
low V block B, where it is held by the clamp C. The 
set screws a b c d in the box-shaped chucking block D 
support the bed on the crank end, and also serve as 
a means of adjustment in aligning it horizontally and 



PLANING, SHAPING, SLOTTING. 



isi 



transversely. When the bed has been set in position 
for planing, before the clamps are tightened up addi- 
tional supports in the form of wooden props, as shown 
at E F, should be placed under each corner or else- 
where, as required. On work of this kind the facili- 
ties for clamping it in such positions as shown are 
always limited ; and, therefore, any projections on or 
depressions in the work must be utilized for this 
purpose, an instance of which is shown in the engrav- 
ing where the clamp G is shown (by dotted lines) 
resting on the inner bosses of the bearings. 

CUTTING KEY-WAYS ON THE PLANER. 

The principal objection to cutting key-ways on the 
planer is the difficulty experienced in chucking the 




Fig. 97. 

work so that the key- ways will be of the right taper 
when cut. This objection can be entirely removed 



132 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



by adopting a standard taper for all the work to be 
key-seated, and then making a pair of taper-chucking 
bars, preferably of I section, against which the work 
may be chucked, and by which means it will always 
be set to the right taper. This is shown very plainly 
in Figure 97, which represents a sectional view of a 
pulley A, in position for cutting the key- way, chucked 
against the taper bars B (or, as they are always termed 
in the workshop, " taper parallels "), which are held 
in place on the angle plate C by the bolts DD; E E 
clamps for holding the pulley, F tool, G tool holder 
or cutter bar, H platen. 

CUTTING KEY- WAYS ON THE SLOTTER. 

Key-ways can be cut to much better advantage on 
the slotting than on the planing machine, because the 




Fig 



work can be chucked much easier and held more 
firmly on the former than on the latter machine. 
The method of holding the work on the slotter is 
much the same as on the planer, as shown in Figure 
98, which represents a sectional side view of the pulley 



PLANING, SHAPING, SLOTTING. 133 

A in position for cutting the key- way, clamped at E E 
on the taper bars B, which are bolted to the platen (or 
table) H by the clamps and bolts D D, F slotter tool 
cutting the key-way. 

PLANING WORK BETWEEN THE CENTERS. 

There are certain kinds of work which can be 
operated on (planed) to better advantage if it is 
chucked or held between the planer centers, an 
example of which is shown in Figure 99, which 




Fig. 99. 

represents a connecting-rod chucked between the 
centers for planing the butt ends. Such work is 
always centered and then trued and faced off to the 
right length in the lathe, after which, while the work 
is still revolving in the lathe centers, the circles a a' 
(the diameters of which equal the thickness to which 
the work has to be planed) are described on the ends 
of the work by means of a sharp-pointed tool. It is 
always best to plane the broader surfaces of the work 
first, and in setting it, the work should be aligned 
from the under side in preference to the upper side ; 
this can be done by means of parallels of suitable 
thickness, or by means of the adjustable parallel 
C C. The parallel C (the under side of which is an 



134 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

inclined plane) is fitted into the groove (the bottom of 
which is similarly inclined to correspond with the 
under side of the parallel C) in the guide block C If 
the work is very heavy it may be advisable to put 
parallels under each end to support it. When the 
broader surfaces have been planed, the quickest and 
most perfect way to set (square) the work for planing 




Fig. 100. 

the narrower surfaces is by means of the angle plate 
C and clamp D, as shown in Figure 100. The angle 
plate should be made about the same height as the 
centers, and the clamp may be of the ordinary form. 
The centers shown in the engraving are of the 
simple form, but when planing polygonal or other 
than square or rectangular work, it is best to use the 
compound or universal form of centers. 

CONCAVE AND CONVEX PLANING. 

Concaved and convexed surfaces are planed by one 
of two methods (which are divided into two classes), 
as follows : 

First, by using formers, which changes the posi- 
tion of the tool as the work is fed under it, and 
second, by using special appliances by means of which 



PLANING, SHAPING, SLOTTING. 



135 



the position of the work is continually changed as it 
is fed past the point of the tool. In the first case 
the shape and position of the former is such that, as 
the work and former are fed past the tool, the tool is 
raised or lowered in such manner that the work is 
planed to the same shape as the former. In the sec- 
ond case, the tool is fed transversely or vertically 
across the surface of the work in the ordinary way, 
and as the work travels past the point of the tool the 
chuck, or supplementary table (in or on which the work 
is held), is made to oscillate upon its pivot in such 
manner as to cause the work to describe an arc, and 
to be planed convex or concave, accordingly as the 
tool is set to cut outside or inside of the pitch line to 
which the work is set. 




Fig. 101. 



Figure 101 represents a planer attachment for plan* 
ing concave and convex surfaces. The table A A' is 
of the compound form ; the lower part A' is bolted 
to the platen, and has two semicircular slides a a' 
upon which the similar slides bb r (on the under side) 
of the table A work. The table A is pivoted at c, and 



136 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

is oscillated by means of the guide block B (shown 
partly by dotted lines) which works in the slide bar 
C ; the slide bar is bolted to the under side of the cross- 
rail D, as plainly shown. 

The radius of the arc which the table is made to 
describe on its pivot as it is moved backwards and 
forwards with the platen is determined by the 
amount of angularity given the slide bar C, the pitch 
or center line to which the work is set always cut- 
ting the center of the pivot pin c; EGF is the work, 
shown in the position in which it would be set and 
bolted on the table A ; in this case G represents a link, 
and E F link blocks for the reversing gear of steam 
engines (patented). 



137 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Planing, Shaping, Slotting. — Continued. 

GAUGE FOR PLANING v's AND V WAYS. 

Figure 102 represents a gauge which combines 
the features of both male and female gauges as 
employed in planing the V's and V ways of machine 
tools. 



■aj 



14 

_JL_ 



13 1' 



\i 



11 



Fig. 102. 



Figure 103 shows the gauge applied in planing the 
V ways on the bottom of a lathe foot stock, A repre- 



2. 



1/ 



±2 13 



14 



at 



15 16 

1 



Fig. 103. 




-r-9 



3 4 



B |* 



1W! 

-*---p rr: f--t--io 

5 6 7 k 



Fig. 104. 



senting the gauge, B the work. The upper (plane) 
surfaces a a' a" (Figures 103 and 104) of the work 



138 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



are first planed to size. The width and depth of the 
V ways is then laid off from the center line 0, simply 
drawing the perpendicular lines 1 to 8 to indicate the 
Widths of the tops and bottoms of the V ways, and 
the horizontal lines 9 and 10 to indicate the depth. 
Or, the ways may be laid off in full by means of the 
gauge itself, laying one side off first, and then revers- 
ing the gauge to lay off the other side. The bottoms 
of the V ways b b' should then be planed, after which 
one side of each V way can be planed at one setting 
of the swivel head and tool, testing the accuracy of 
the angles and distance apart by means of the gauge, 
as shown in Figure 103. 




Fig. 105. 

Figure 105 shows the same gauge applied as a 
female gauge in planing Vs. The upper and lower 
horizontal surfaces a a' and bb'b" of the work are 
first planed to size. The V's are then laid off in 
practically the same manner as explained above. 
One side of each V can then be planed and gauged 
to size without any reference being made to the 
opposite side of the V's. It is also evident that when 
the widths of the tops and bottoms of the V's are 
accurately laid off on the gauge, as indicated by the 
lines 11 to 16, that the V's and V ways can be 
accurately planed thereby. This form of gauge is 
preferable to the ordinary male and female gauges 
usually employed for this purpose. 



PLANING, SHAPING, SLOTTING. 
GRADUATED PLANER HEAD. 



139 



Figure 106 represents 
ordinary 12-inch steel 
scale A and a pointer B 
(fastened thereon by 
means of the small screws 
a a' and b b'), which are in- 
tended to facilitate the 
operation of setting the 
tool for the cut, as for 
instance, when it is re- 
quired to increase the 
amount the tool is cut- 
ting by, say, J inch, or 
to decrease it by, say, 
1-16 inch, this can be 
very closely measured by 
means of the pointer B 
and scale A in an obvious 
manner without any cut 
and try about it, such as 
every mechanic must employ when 
are provided for this purpose. 



a planer head with an 




Fig. 106. 



no 



such 



means 



STUD BOLTS AND NUTS VERSUS SOLID-HEADED BOLTS 
FOR PLANER WORK. 

In chucking almost any kind of work on the planer, 
shaper, or other machine having a similar platen, or 
work table, it will frequently happen that after the 
work has been set on the platen it is required to 
clamp the work on the inside, or on the outside in 
such places as have not been previously arranged for, 
and that about the time this necessity is discovered, 
it is also found that the slots in the platen on each 



140 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 






side of the place where the clamps are to be put are 
already covered by the work, or are stopped off by 
other clamp bolts, and that an ordinary clamp bolt 
cannot be inserted in the place desired. In such 
cases it is usual to insert a T-headed bolt (with the 
opposite corners rounded off) in the slot. But to 
carry a full line of such bolts in addition to the 
ordinary solid-headed clamp bolts, or to have to stop 
to make one or more T-headed bolts whenever such 
an emergency occurs (and just when the time for 
doing so can least be spared), is both inconvenient and 
expensive. 

To avoid such contingencies, and to facilitate the 
matter generally, we have in our own 
practice dispensed with the ordinary and 
T-headed bolts altogether, and adopted 
a system of stud bolts and nuts in the 
place thereof. The method, as shown 
in Figure 107, is to cut away the nuts 
(which are to be inserted in the slots), 
as shown in the plan view A and the 
sectional side elevation B (which also 
shows the stud bolt), just enough to 
admit of the nut being inserted in the 
slot. Before putting the work on the 
platen (or stopping off the slots as 
already explained) a sufficiency of these 
nuts (with the holes plugged with waste) 
are inserted in the slots in such places as 
to be always accessible. Then when the 
work is in place, wherever it is desired to 
put a clamp, the waste is picked out of 
the nut and a stud bolt of the right 
length inserted therein. 

These stud bolts are practically as strong as 
solid-headed bolts, and are more convenient than 
any other form. 





Fig. 107. 



PLANINGj SHAPING, SLOTTING. 141 

SLOTTING MACHINES. 

Slotting machines are used very extensively in 
England and other European countries, but their 
employment in America does not seem to have met 
with as much favor as elsewhere, a fact which is to 
be regretted, because for certain classes of work the 
slotting machine is far superior to either the planer, 
shaper or milling machine, and, in the hands of a good 
operator, the amount and variety of work which can 
be done on this machine is, to say the least, surpris- 
ing. It (the slotting machine) is mostly adapted to 
dressing the internal surfaces of connecting-rod straps, 
links for reversing gears, etc., and the outer and inner 
surfaces of irregular shaped work. Usually several 
pieces of the w T ork can be clamped (bolted) together 
and dressed (slotted) as though it were only one piece. 



142 



CHAPTER XV. 

Milling. 

modern milling practice. 

In machine-shop practice, the term "milling" 
signifies the shaping of metals by means of rotary 
cutters on machines specially designed for the pur- 
pose, or on other machines that have been changed 
and fitted up for this purpose. 

It is only of late years that milling has attained 
the important position it now occupies in modern 
practice. But so rapidly has this system of cutting 
or dressing the surfaces of metal work been developed, 
that it has almost entirely superseded ajl other 
methods formerly employed for the same purpose. 
And since the introduction of "gang mills" and 
" formed cutters," the capacity of the milling machine 
has been gradually extended and its scope broadened 
until it is now employed for shaping and finishing 
an almost endless variety of work. 

When the machine is properly selected, with an 
intelligent view to its adaptability, such as the work 
that has to be done upon it may call for, it will be 
found that this is a remarkably efficient and economi- 
cal machine, and that, for the quantity and quality of 
work which can be done on it in a given time, it is 
superior to any other machine tool in existence; 
that is, when the machine is operated or supervised 
by an expert operator. 

When the cutters and chucking appliances are 



MILLING. 143 

properly designed, and the cutters and work are once 
yet by a skilled supervisor, one operator (and fre- 
quently an unskilled hand at that) can usually attend 
to two or more machines at the same time, as in such 
cases, when the cutters and the first piece of the work 
have been once correctly set for the operation, the duty 
of the operator consists in merely starting and stopping 
the machine, and changing the work in the chuck, as 
required. In other cases the nature of the work may 
be such that none but a skilled operator can handle 
it successfully, and that he will have to give his 
whole undivided attention to the machine and work 
as long as the operation continues. 

Sometimes the conditions can be modified and the 
process simplified by making the machine semi or 
wholly automatic, or by making such other changes 
as will expediate or facilitate the process. 

Many of the most important improvements in mill- 
ing-machine practice have been made by individual 
superintendents, and operators in their own practice, 
in adapting and making the cutters and other appli- 
ances to suit their own requirements and work. In 
such cases these improvements are, as a matter of 
course, naturally regarded as personal property, and 
are therefore seldom made known outside of the shop 
in which they are introduced and used. 

After all there is nothing very wonderful in the 
performance of the milling machine, for in milling, 
each tooth of the cutter is equivalent to a separate 
single-point tool, and is only in actual cutting con- 
tact with the work during a period which seldom 
exceeds one-tenth of the revolution of the cutter, 
thereby making it possible to increase the cutting 
speed for all kinds of work (without overheating the 
cutters) up to from three to five times that of a single- 
point cutting tool. And furthermore, as there is 
always two or more teeth of the cutter in cutting con- 



144 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

tact with the work at the same time, the feed can be 
increased in proportion to the number of teeth among 
which the cut is divided. 

To get the best and most satisfactory results in 
milling cast iron, wrought iron, brass and other 
metals, the cutters should be specially made and 
adapted as regards the shape, pitch, and angles of the 
teeth, for the material to be worked, as in similar 
processes on other machines. The speed of the cutters 
should be as great as can be employed without dulling 
the edges of the cutters, and the feed should be as 
heavy as the machine can drive, and the work and 
cutters admit of. 

What would constitute the ordinary practice of one 
operator or concern, having a thorough knowledge of 
milling processes, and possessing every facility in the 
way of appliances and cutters for doing the work, 
would be considered very advanced practice by other 
operators or concerns not so well acquainted with 
milling processes, and not possessing any but the 
ordinary facilities for doing the work. 

In the latter cases, the work turned out on the 
machines is usually of such an indifferent and unsatis- 
factory nature, as regards the quantity and quality, 
that it is not at all an uncommon sight in such shops 
to see the milling machine standing idle, while the 
planing, shaping, and slotting machines are fully 
occupied on work which could be done to better 
advantage and in a fraction of the time on the 
milling machine, if the capacity of the latter machine 
was better understood. 

It is not deemed necessary to describe in detail the 
ordinary milling processes, as the subject has been 
very thoroughly discussed and treated of in journals 
and books. 

Such examples of modern milling practice as are 
shown (by permission) in the following pages are 



MILLING. 145 

taken from the present practice of individual con- 
cerns, and represent the application of certain milling 
devices designed and employed for special purposes, 
and which it is thought might furnish a basis for 
improvement, or be of service in other processes. 

DOUBLE GANG MILLING. 

Figure 108 shows a double gang milling arrange- 
ment, designed and employed by Mr. Garland, for 
milling the shears and upper surfaces of* lathe beds 
and other work at one operation. 

As shown therein, the two sets of gang mills are 
both in operation at the same time, one set A' taking 
the roughing, and the other set A the finishing cut. 
They are driven from an overhead drum by means of 
the pulleys and reducing gearing B B'. The work 
W is fed under the mills by still further reducing the 
planer gearing (motion), as shown at C C'j the pulleys 
C being driven from the same drum as the gang mills. 
The original quick return motion of the planer is 
fully retained by arranging the belt shippers in such 
manner that, when the work is being fed under the 
cutters, the original belt is running on the loose pul- 
ley, or else stopped altogether, and when the motion 
of the platen is reversed, the feed belt is shipped onto 
the loose pulley and the original belt onto the tight 
pulley. 

The mills can be run one set under and the other 
set over, or, as it is sometimes termed, "on and off" 
the work, as arranged. 

Objection may be raised to roughing and finishing 
the work at one operation, on the supposition that the 
work should always be loosened andrechucked for the 
reasons explained in Chapter X, but an extended ex- 
perience with this method of milling has shown very 



146 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



conclusively that it is very rarely necessary to re- 
chuck the work if it has been properly chucked in the 
first instance. In fact the work turned out by this 




method is found to be as fully up to the standard as 
when milled by any other method. 

Another advantage of this method is the entire ab- 
sence of any jar or vibration, owing to the manner in 
which the mills are run. 



MILLING. 



147 



FACET AND SURFACE MILLING DEVICE. 




Figure 109 represents a vertical spindle milling de- 
vice employed for " facet" and general surface milling. 
As shown in the figure, the device has been specially 
designed for the purpose, with a view to its adaptabil- 
ity and application to an ordinary planing machine. 






148 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

The work is fed under the cutters by still further 
reducing the planer gearing, and the machine and 
cutters are operated from an overhead drum, as in the 
preceding example. 

Unlike most other devices that have been applied 
on the planer for the same purpose, this device admits 
of a ready adjustment both transversely and verti- 
cally ; transversely, by sliding the cutter-head across 
the cross-rail in the same manner as the planer head, 
and vertically, by raising or lowering the cross-rail in 
the usual way. 

The upper part of the vertical spindle S is inclined 
forward (from a true vertical plane) about ygVir of an 
inch to the foot to prevent the cutters fronl dragging 
on the work after their circuit of cutting contact has 
been completed. This, of course, leaves the surface of 
the work hollow (concaved) in proportion to what- 
ever amount the spindle is inclined forward, but if 
the inclination of the spindle is restricted to the 
amount specified it is scarcely perceptible on the sur- 
face of the work, and yet it is sufficient to allow the 
cutters to clear the work on the back of the cut. 

In some cases the feed motion is operated by means 
of a worm and worm gear, and the mills are also oc- 
casionally operated by the same means. 



149 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Milling. — Continued. 

FACE MILLING. 

A very popular method of milling is " end " or 
"face" milling. One reason why this is so, is that, 
when milling plane vertical surfaces, any face mill, 
whose diameter exceeds the depth of the surface to be 
milled, can be employed for that purpose without hav- 
ing to take into consideration the thickness or diam- 
eter of the cutters as in other processes. 

This form of milling would be still more popular if 
the facilities for chucking and operating on the work 
were in all cases equal to the requirements, but, un- 
fortunately for the operator (and for this particular 
method of milling), such facilities are not always 
available, and so the work has to be chucked direct to 
the machine platen, which necessitates the resetting 
and rechucking of the work for every surface to be 
milled. Therefore other methods of milling the work 
are frequently employed in preference to this, as the 
work can be more readily reset and chucked as the 
various surfaces are operated on. 

There is probably no other form of chuck so emi- 
nently adapted to the purpose of holding the work 
while it is being operated on by this process as some 
one of the many forms of " monitor" chucks. The 
simplest forms of these are shown in Figures 90, 91 
and 92. As shown therein, the chuck is made of a 
size suitable for planer work. For milling-machine 



150 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



work the construction 
cisely the same, but the 
the machine and work. 



of the chuck would be pre- 
size would be reduced to suit 




Fig. 110. 



A special form of monitor chuck designed for this 
purpose is shown in Figure 110, with the work 
chucked in position thereon as it is being operated on. 
As shown therein, the chuck consists of two parts, a 
revolving plate A and a base plate A'. The base A' 
is located by means of a tongue on the under side in 
the center T slot of the platen D. The revolving 
plate A (upon which the work W is held on the 
parallels P P by the bolts and straps c c f ) is pivoted 
in the center, and is held in position by the bolts a a', 
which are inserted in a circular T slot in the base A'. 
When one surface has been operated on, the chuck 
and work are revolved until the next surface is brought 
into position for the operation. 

It would be impossible to enumerate herein all the 
many and varied kinds of work that is and can be held 
on this chuck while it is being operated on. 



MILLING. 151 



DOUBLE! FACE MILLING. 

Another method of milling the vertical surfaces of 
work is by means of " twin " or " straddle " mills, 
whereby two or more surfaces of the work are milled 
at the same operation. 

This form of milling is very popular, and is pre- 
ferred to any other method whenever and wherever it 
can be successfully employed. 

So far, however, in general practice, double " face " 
or " end " milling has only been accomplished by two 
methods : First, by means of " twin " or " straddle " 
mills, and secondly, by means of double-headed mill- 
ing machines specially designed and constructed for 
the purpose, the latter machine usually giving the 
most economical and satisfactory results. 

Whenever straddle mills are used their diameter 
can never be less than twice the width of the surface 
to be milled, plus one-half the diameter of the arbor 
on which they are chucked, and if the nature of the 
work is such that the clamps and bolts, by which it is 
held, project above the same, the diameter of the 
mills must be still further increased by just twice the 
amount the clamps and bolts project above the work. 
Which considerations all tend to retard the more ex- 
tensive employment of this method, as they necessi- 
tate the employment of cutters of such excessive 
diameters, that the cost of making and maintaining, 
and the power required to run such cutters are con- 
sidered the most serious and almost the only objections 
to their employment. 

With double-headed milling machines the objec- 
tions mentioned above are entirely obviated, as double 
face milling can be accomplished with the same 
facility as single face milling, the condition being 
precisely the same in both cases. 



152 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



In private practice double face milling has been 
accomplished in a most gratifying and satisfactory 
manner both on internal and external vertical surface 
milling on the ordinary plain milling machine, with- 
out resorting to either of the above-mentioned meth- 
ods, some examples of which are shown in the 
following illustration and pages. 




Fig. Ill, 



Figure 111 represents a method of double face mill- 
ing on an ordinary single-headed milling machine. 

The cutters C are each held on a separate arbor (or 
spindle), and are journaled in the supplementary 
brackets B B, which are adjustable on the overhanging 
arm E, to which they are, when once set, held by the 
keys c" o!" and the binding screws e e', the overhang- 
ing arm E being held in its own bearings by the keys 
c c' and binding screws e" e r ". The work W is shown 
in position clamped on the parallels P P to the platen 
D ready for milling the surfaces d d', the cutters C 
being driven by means of the gears a a' and b b' from 
the main spindle (arbor) A. 



MILLING. 153 

By this method the diameter of the cutters (face 
mills) can always be less than one-half of that required 
for straddle mills, and here, as in the ordinary prac- 
tice of single face milling, any cutters, the diameter of 
which exceeds the depth of the surfaces to be milled, 
can be used for this purpose. There is a good deal 
less springing of the cutters from the work with this 
method than there is when straddle mills are em- 
ployed. 

It is necessary in this case, as in other milling pro- 
cesses, to employ an efficient outboard support to 
brace the overhanging arm E and spindle A. 

INTERNAL DOUBLE FACE MILLING. 

The milling of internal vertical surfaces is not 
practised to the same extent that outside face milling 
is, as rotary cutters are not as well adapted to this 
class of work and the results are seldom as satisfactory 
as when other methods are employed, unless the na- 
ture of the work is such as will admit of the cutters 
passing right through or across the surfaces to be 
milled, in which case it is possible to use "twin" or 
double " face " mills of large diameter, or in other 
cases to mill the surfaces by means of slab mills of 
small diameter operated on a vertical spindle, the 
latter form being generally used for milling the inner 
surfaces which terminate against the shoulder or 
against other surfaces of the work. 

By either method of milling, when the abutting 
corners of the work terminate at a sharp point, the 
surfaces can only be milled up to a point where the 
cutting edges of the mills come in contact with the 
opposing surface of the work, leaving the corners of 
the work to be finished by other processes ; a better 
understanding of which can be had by referring to 
these methods as shown in Figures 112 to 115 inclusive. 



154 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



Let it be supposed that the outer surfaces d d' of the 
connecting-rod strap or work W (Figure 112) (which 
is also the same as shown in the two preceding exam- 
ples, Figures 110 and 111) have already been milled, 





Fig. 112. 



Fig. 113. 



and that it is required to mill the inner surfaces b b'. 
The clamps should be changed from the inside to the 
outside of the work, or, the work should, when made 
in large quantities, be held in a special chuck, such 
as shown in Figure 113, where W represents the 
work (as before), C chuck, a a' a" a r// clamps and 
bolts by which the work is held. 



33 a' 




c(j3 a 



iv 



^*- 



Fig. 114. 



Fig. 115. 



Figure 114 represents a side view of Figure 112 
(partly in section), and is intended to show how the 
inner surfaces b b' are milled by means of twin face 
mills, A representing the arbor on which the cutters 
are held, C cutter, W work. 



MILLING. 



155 



It will be noticed that the cutter C has milled the 
surface b as far as c, and that a space B from a to a' 
is left unfinished, and that this space will have to be 
finished by other means. 

In some respects slab milling is preferable to twin 
or double face milling on work of this description, 
for although it is only possible to mill one surface at 




A. 



c 



^ 









Fig. 116. 

a time, still all the three surfaces, b, c and b', can be 
milled at one operation, and one setting of the cutter 
and work, by simply changing the direction of and 
reversing the feeds as required. 

There still exists, however, the same objection of 
having to finish the corners of the work by other 
means, as will be seen by referring to Figure 115, 
the space B from a to a' being left unfinished, as in 
the preceding example. 



— 



156 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

By the employment of a method similar to that 
shown in Figure 111, internal face milling can be 
accomplished with almost the same facility as outside 
face milling. 

It is accomplished by means of a pair of twin face 
mills arranged as shown in Figure 116. The cutters 
CC are fixed on an independent chucking arbor 
which is journaled in a supplementary bracket B, 
attached to the overhanging arm E, and driven from 
the main spindle A, of the machine, by means of the 
gears b b'. 

By this means cutters of smaller diameter can be 
employed and the corners of the work can be finished 
as perfectly as by any method known, by simply 
changing the direction of the feed (when the cutters 
have milled as far as the corners of the work) from 
the longitudinal to the vertical. 

This form of mills can only be employed in those 
cases where the distance between the surfaces to be 
milled is sufficient to admit of the cutters being 
arranged and driven in this manner. 

Where the inner surfaces of the work are too close 
together to admit of the cutters being arranged and 
driven, as shown in Figure 116, the device has been 
still further modified, and are arranged, as shown in 
Figures 117 and 118, Figure 117 representing a front, 
and Figure 118 an end elevation of the device. 
Motion is imparted direct to the cutters by means of 
the rawhide gears b b' which are driven by the main 
spindle (as before), the cutter teeth being made to 
serve as gears for their own rotation. 

The teeth of the cutters are backed off somewhat 
more than in ordinary practice, and the clearance 
space between the teeth is made extra ample to allow 
room for the lodgment of any small chips that may 
accidentally adhere to the cutters when operating. In 
backing off the teeth they are made of such shape on 



MILLING. 



157 



the back that they will mesh correctly with the gear 
teeth. A rawhide gear is preferable to a metal 'gear 
for this purpose, and if the disengaged side of the gear 
teeth strike against the cutting edges of the mills, 
this side of the gear teeth should be relieved suffici- 
ently to clear the same. 




~R an; hide 
Gear 

Cutler 




Fig. 118. 



Fig. 117. 



Another adaptation of the above device is shown in 
Figure 119. It is employed for milling the inner 
surfaces of work in which the frame or other parts 
project to such an extent as to render it necessary to 
employ cutters which can be operated in advance of 
the main spindle A and overhanging arm E of the 
machine, or, in other machines, in advance of the 
cross-rail. 

The latter forms of milling devices (in which the 
motion is imparted direct to the cutters) are never 






158 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



employed except on small work, and it frequently 
happens that there is not much of the work for which 
the devices are constructed to be milled. But as 
there is in most cases other work upon which they 
can be used (and for milling which other special 
tools would have to be made), their sphere of use- 
fulness and capacity can be greatly extended if they 




Gear* 



Jlaa/hide 
Gear* 



Fig. 119. 



are employed on such work,, thereby saving the cost 
of making and maintaining other tools for the 
purpose. 

Figure 120 represents the application of the above 
device (Figure 119) in milling the inner surfaces of 
the double eye of a reach-rod. The application of 
this device to this purpose is of more than ordinary 
interest, as it admits of the employment of a feature in 
the design of the double eye which is seldom used on 
account of the difficulty experienced in finishing the 
inner surfaces. 



MILLING. 



159 



As shown at A, Figure 121 (and by dotted lines in 
Figure 120), the construction of the double eye differs 
from the ordinary open-ended form (shown at B) in 
having a thin web of metal extending from one 
eye to the other, and about one-third of the way 
around the outer circumference, thereby strengthen- 




Fig. 120. 

ing both eyes and making it possible to employ a 
lighter form of construction. 

When the mills are driven, as shown in Figures 
117 to 120, provision must be made for preventing 
the chips from sticking between the teeth of the 
cutters. 

On cast-iron work this will seldom occur, but on 
wrought-iron and steel work, where the cutters are 
always lubricated or cooled by means of oil or other 
liquids, such as " soap " or " soda " water, the teeth 
are likely to get clogged up with chips, the result of 



160 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



which is disastrous to both gears and cutters. The 
best way to prevent this is to brush the chips away, 
which is done by mechanical means in a very efficient 
manner, by employing either rotary or reciprocating 
brushes, actuated by suitable mechanism from the 
main spindle of the machine. 

The foregoing examples of milling have been care- 
fully selected from many others, to show what can be 




Fig. 121. 



accomplished by the employment of special milling 
devices when applied (on the ordinary milling and 
other machines) intelligently to the milling of 
surfaces that are inaccessible or difficult by the 
ordinary methods, or by means of which the ordinary 
methods can be still further simplified and made 
more efficient. 

Milling, according to the prevailing practice, has 
been almost reduced to a science. The expert 
operator now arranges his cutters and chucking 



MILLING. 161 

appliances, and regulates his speeds, and feeds with 
such precision and accuracy, that when the cutters 
and the first piece of the work have been once set for 
the operation, an almost unlimited number of the 
pieces can be milled with the same accuracy as the 
first piece. This is mainly owing to the manner in 
which the milling cutters are backed off or relieved 
for the clearance angles, for no matter what the shape 
of the surfaces to be milled may be, the cutters for 
milling these surfaces are relieved in such manner 
that no amount of grinding will effect their shape or 
accuracy, except to reduce their diameter somewhat, 
which is in most cases easily remedied by resetting 
the work to a like extent. 

In addition to the capacity of the milling machine 
for doing most of the work upon which the planing, 
shaping, and other machines were formerly almost 
exclusively employed, its capacity has of late been 
still further extended to cover many important opera- 
tions usually performed on the lathe, such as milling 
the rims and faces of gear blanks, sheave, and flange 
pulleys, and a variety of similar work, the operations 
being performed equally as well and in a fraction of 
the time on the milling machine that it takes to 
perform the same operation on the lathe, as all the 
external surfaces can be milled at one operation on 
the milling machine, whereas it always requires 
one or more operations for each surface on the 
lathe. 

The improvements and progress made in the con- 
struction of milling machines of late years indicate 
that the milling machines of the future will not be 
built on the same lines as the milling machines of the 
past, but that the machines of the future will be 
designed and built more specially with a view to 
handling the work to be done thereon. 

The special milling appliances shown in the forego- 



162 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

ing illustrations are represented as applied on the mill- 
ing machines built by the Psdrick & Ayer Co., of Phila- 
delphia, Pa., but are equally well adapted to other 
types of machines possessing the same desirable feat- 
ures, i. e., first, of having a good, rigid outboard support, 
and secondly, of the ease with which such appliances 
can be fitted and applied to or removed from the 
overhanging arm. 



163 



CHAPTER XVII. 

Lathe Work. 

the ordinary and special forms of the lathe. 

The lathe is still considered (as it always has been 
and probably ever will be) the most important of all 
metal-cutting machine tools, which is due in a great 
measure to the fact that no other machine tool em- 
ploying a single point tool has so far been designed or 
built that is capable of such a wide range and variety 
of purposes and operations as the lathe is. Nor has 
the introduction of the " turret " lathe, the many forms 
of the "boring mill," "screw machines," "shafting lathes" 
and a variety of other special forms of the lathe served 
to lessen the importance of the lathe in any sense 
whatever, for the use and employment of all these 
special forms of the lathe is always restricted to the 
particular kind of work and operations for which the 
machines were designed and built. Therefore, though 
the employment of such special machines must of 
necessity be taken as representative examples of the 
most advanced practice of this the present day, when 
successfully applied for doing the work for which they 
were intended, it is doubtful if the employment of 
such machines and methods can be strictly regarded 
as representing, in the general application of the term, 
"the most approved practice of the day," any more 
than the commoner methods of doing work on the 
lathe, which are a thousandfold more extensively em- 
ployed in every-day practice, and which, when the 
amount, requirements and other conditions are taken 
into account, are, comparatively speaking, run on an 



164 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

equally profitable basis. And when the ordinary 
facilities for doing work on the lathe are further 
improved upon to suit the requirements of the work, 
which they can be in nearly every instance, the opera- 
tions can be performed on the lathe with an expedition 
and accuracy that will compare very favorably with 
the machines specially designed for the purpose. For 
instance, if the work is turning shafts or shafting, 
additional tools held in a substantial follower-rest 
mounted in the cross-slide of the lathe carriage are 
employed to expediate the operation. If the work is 
turning or (and) boring pulleys, discs, gears, etc., the 
chucking appliances and tools should be such as this 
class of work may call for. Or, when the work is 
studs, bolts, pins or such work as could be done on a 
turret lathe, the chucking appliances are made and 
adapted to the work, the tool rest is removed altogether 
and a turret rest substituted therefor, which latter 
appliance practically converts the ordinary lathe into 
a turret lathe, and which was successfully accom- 
plished over twenty years ago. 

Such changes as those referred to above are not as 
a rule of an expensive nature, and the great advantages 
to be gained by the employment of such when properly 
handled are always of a satisfactory nature. And 
when we take into account the actual cost and main- 
tenance of special machines, which, though perfectly 
adapted for and capable of doing the work for which 
they were designed, would in all probability be stand- 
ing idle a greater part of the time (except in those 
shops that have plenty or make a specialty of the 
work, for doing which such machines are employed), 
and calculate the probable gain likely to result from 
the use thereof, as compared with the cost of the same 
operations when performed on the lathe, and especially 
if the latter is fitted up and arranged in a manner 
suitable for handling the work' to the best advantage, 



LATHE WORK. 165 

we shall find that the result will in most cases be in 
favor of the lathe. 

An expert lathesman is usually supposed to be 
capable of skillfully handling and operating any and 
all other kinds of machine tools, as the principles 
governing the operation of all other metal-cutting 
machines and the tools employed thereon are (with 
the exception of the milling machine) similar to those 
of the lathe. 

In ordinary practice the average machinist rarely if 
ever makes use of any calculations in or for determin- 
ing the speed at which his work or cutting tools should 
be run. He usually applies the knowledge he has 
acquired on this subject by actual experience and 
observation to this purpose, and, although it may 
appear to an ordinary observer, when the work or 
tools are speeded in this manner, that it is only guess- 
work, it will be found on trial that such really is not 
the case, but, on the contrary, the speed exceeds in 
nearly every instance the rate that is generally sup- 
posed to be the most economical limit at which such 
tools or work should be run. 

On cast iron the cutting speed has been fixed (from 
comparisons, and data collected) at from thirteen to 
sixteen circumferential or longitudinal feet per minute. 
And for other metals as follows : 

Wrought iron, fifteen to twenty feet per minute. 

Steel, eleven to sixteen feet per minute. 

Brass, twenty-five to forty feet per minute. 

These excessive variations are dependent on the 
following -circumstances and conditions : 

First. The number of surface feet to be dressed at 
one setting of the tool. 

Second. The density and toughness of the metals. 

Third. The shape and form of the tool or tools 
employed, and 

Fourth. Whether the cut taken over the w T ork is a 



166 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

roughing or a finishing cut, and if the tool is cutting 
on or below the scale or skin of the work. 

Quite frequently the nature of the work renders it 
necessary to employ a tool with the cutting edges 
standing at such a distance from the tool part or rest 
that ordinary speeds and feeds cannot be employed 
thereon. In other cases the texture of the metal may 
necessitate the employment of slower speeds and finer 
feeds. Then again, for the same reason, it may be 
possible to use quicker speeds and coarser feeds. 

It is therefore impossible to give any definite rule 
by which either the cutting speeds or rate of feed can 
be accurately calculated or even estimated. 

On roughing cuts, the rate of feed varies from -gV to 
fV of an inch, and on finishing cuts, from 3V to 1 J 
inches per revolution of the work or cutter, or per 
stroke of the machine or tool. 

It is not our intention to discuss or attempt to give 
instructions or formulate rules on a subject where so 
much depends upon the practical knowledge and 
intelligence of the operator or supervisor, but it may 
not be amiss to state that individual experience and 
energy alone can crown with success the efforts of the 
operator to excel in this important branch of 
mechanics. 

It is presupposed that the reader is already ac- 
quainted with (or can from other sources acquire a 
knowledge of) the uses and manner of operating any 
or all of the special forms of the lathe; and it is 
thought that it will be more important and advan- 
tageous if we confine the following chapters on lathe 
work to the illustration and description of a variety 
of the methods of doing work on the ordinary lathe 
by means of such special appliances and improvements 
as have been designed and employed for doing work 
which is now in many instances done less perfectly 
and at greater expense by other methods. 



LATHE WORK. 167 

Although so much can be accomplished on the lathe 
with only the ordinary facilities for doing the work, there 
is no question whatever as to the advisability or necessity 
of improving on the ordinary methods by employing 
any appliance in the way of chucks or tools that will 
expediate or facilitate the process. But, whatever 
form the chucking appliances may partake of, the 
same principles and rules must be observed in their 
construction that govern the construction of the 
chucking appliances of other machines, for the work 
can be sprung just as easily on the lathe, in clamping, 
as on any other machine, and for this reason the 
chucking appliances should be such as will not create 
any strains in or on the work. 



til 



168 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
Lathe Work. — Continued. 

BORING TOOLS. 

The cutting edges of the tools employed for boring 
work in the lathe require to be shaped with greater 
accuracy and precision than is necessary for turning- 
tools, for the reason that they are always used foi 
shaping and trueing the inner surfaces of work, and 
the space in which they are to operate is usually of a 
contracted nature, thereby necessitating a more slender 
construction of the body of the tool in proportion to 
the work they have to do, a disadvantage which is 
still further intensified by the fact that the cutting 
edges of the tool must in most cases stand further 
away from the tool post or rest than the tools for 
outside turning. 

So ably have the requirements and merits of the 
different shapes and forms of lathe tools been set forth 
and discussed in the latest works on this subject, that 
it is not thought necessary to attempt a dissertation 
(which would only be a repetition of what has already 
been said) on this particular question. We shall 
therefore confine ourselves in this chapter to the con- 
sideration of a few special forms of boring tools. 

IMPROVED CUTTER BAR FOR BORING. 

Figures 122 and 123 represent a plan and perspec- 
tive view of a boring tool bar with inserted cutter, 
designed by Mr. C. E. Loetzer, Auburn, N. Y. (not 



LATHE WORK. 



169 



patented). It will be seen that the point of the tool 
is in advance of the end a of the bar, and that the 
position of the head b of the binding screw is such 
that it does not project beyond the end a or the side c 




Fig. 122. 



of the bar, thereby avoiding the three most objection- 
able features of the ordinary tool holders or cutter 
bars of this description, viz. : First, of having to bend 
or offset the shank of the tool to permit the point to 




Fig. 123. 

stand in advance of the fore-end a of the bar. Second, 
of having to reduce the diameter of the bar when the 
binding screw is inserted in the upper or under side 
of the bar, and Third, of having to chuck the work so 
far away from the jaws of the chuck or face-plate of 
the lathe, to allow of the tool passing through the 
bore of the work. 

It is therefore possible with this tool holder to bore 
a smaller hole, and to bore closer to the chuck or face- 
plate without having any undue springing of the tool. 



170 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



This method of arranging the tool and binding 
screw in the fore-end of the cutter bar can be used on 
other forms of tool holders, on lathe and planer work. 

BORING AND DRILLING ATTACHMENT FOR LATHES. 




Fig. 124. 



Figure 124 represents an attachment for boring 
crank pin-holes when the crank is held between the 
centers of the lathe or is chucked on the face-plate for 
boring and facing for the shaft. The attachment is 
held in the rest in place of the tool post, and has a 




Fig. 125. 

tongue a on the under side (shown to better advantage 
in Figure 125, which represents a sectional end view of 
the base cut through the lines b c, Figure 124), which 



LATHE WORK. 



171 



fits into the T slot of the tool rest, the bolt d holding 
it in position. The attachment is driven from an 
overhead drum, or an extra pulley on the counter- 
shaft. 

When arranged for holding drills, it can be em- 
ployed for drilling and boring holes in work of any 
kind that is chucked to the face-plate or held between 
the centers of the lathe, and is particularly adapted to 
drilling and boring the pivot pin holes in governor 
wheels or discs, and for all similar work, the tool 
being fed through the work by means of the regular 
carriage feed. 




JFig, 126. 

For small work, or when preferred, the attachment 
is made (without the reducing gears), as shown in 
Figure 126, with the driving pulley fixed directly on 
the boring bar. 

CUTTER HEADS. 



In boring operations, when the diameter of the hole 
to be bored will admit of it, a cutter head is fixed on 
the boring bar for holding the tools, instead of hold- 
ing them in the boring bar itself. The cutters (tools) 
are held in the head in a variety of ways, all of which 
are more or less open to objection, either from having 
to offset the body of the tool to boring the cutting* 
edges even with or in advance of the front part of the 



172 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



cutter-head, or from the difficulty experienced in re- 
moving or adjusting the cutter. Figures 127, 128 




Fig. 127. 



and 129 show three of the ordinary methods by which 
the cutters are held in the cutter-head. 




Fig. 128. 



In Figure 127 the tool B is inserted in the slot a a 
(in the cutter-head A, which is keyed on the boring bar 
C), and held by the clamp b and cap screws b' b'. 



LATHE WORK. 



173 



This is an excellent way to hold the tool, but on 
many kinds of work the tool has to be offset, as shown 
in the figure. 

There is probably no other method of holding the 
tool in the cutter-head employed as much as that 
shown in Figure 128, where the tool B is held by 
means of the key or wedge a. The chief objection to 
this method of holding the tool is the difficulty 
experienced in removing the tool from the head, and 
in making the necessary adjustments for the different 
cuts. 

A better form of cutter-head than either of the 
above is shown in Figure 129 ; by this method straight 
cutters are used, and are held in place by the binding 
screws b, which are inserted in the counterbored re- 
cesses a a. The cutter-head A is held on the boring 
bar C by the set screw c. 




Fig. 129. 



In this cutter-head the objections of the preceding 
forms are entirely removed ; and the only objection to 
this form is that it is heavier than necessary, and no 
adjustment of the cutters can be made when the cutter- 
head is on the inside of the work, as in boring the 



174 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



counterbore on the inner end of an engine cylinder, 
when the back cylinder head is in its place, or forms a 
part of the cylinder casting. 




Fig. 130. 

Figure 130 shows a form of cutter-head that is 
superior to any of the above, inasmuch as it has none 
of the objectionable features of the other forms of cut- 
ter-heads. It is held on the boring bar C by means of 
the set screw a ; the tool B is held by the binding 
screw b, and can be set out (adjusted to the cut) by 
means of the adjusting screw c, which adjustment can 
be made in such cases as that mentioned above, when 
the cutter-head is on the inside of the hole that is 
being bored, if such adjustment is required. A feature 
not possessed by any other cutter-head of which we 
have any knowledge. 

BORING BARS FOR BORING SPHERICAL HOLES. 

Some builders of engines and other machinery em- 
ploy on certain parts of their machines a form of bear- 
ing or joint termed " swivel bearings or joints," the 
object of which is to prevent any undue cramping of 
the shafts or wrist pins in the bearings or boxes, arj§. 



LATHE WORK. 



175 



ing from a possible disturbance in the alignment of the 
parts from any cause whatever. 

On engines this form of bearing and joint is con- 
fined to the crank-shaft bearings, the 
crank piu and connecting-rod brasses 
(usually on the crank end only) and T<>5$ 

the wrist pin on the valve rod slide. ^^ 

On other machines they are used rif le 

for various purposes. 

In all these forms of bearings and 
joints, the boxes, straps, or pillow 
blocks are always bored semicircular 
or biconcave, and the bearings 
(liners, formed in sections), journals 
and wrist pins convex or spheroidal. 

For boring out the pillow blocks 
and boxes of large sized bearings 
the boring bar shown in Figure 131 
is employed. 

A represents the boring bar, broken 
away in the center to show the cut- 
ter-head B, which is pivoted on the 
pin C, and geared at D to engage 
with the worm and feed-shaft 
EE,FF'F" bearings for the feed- 
shaft, G G feed star. The tool a is 
held in the cutter-head B by the 
binding screw b. 

Another form for smaller work is 
shown (partly in section) in Figure 
132. In this form the construction 
is more intricate, but the principle is 
precisely the same. 

In the figure A A represents the boring bar, B 
cutter-head, pivoted at C, and connected with the 
slide E and feed-screw F by means of the connecting- 
rod D, G inner bearing for feed-screw F serving also 



M 



I© 



176 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



to hold the slide E in position, G' outer bearing for 
feed-screw, 1 1 line of intersection, cutting the bar A, 
as indicated in the sectional side and end elevations 

(Figures 132 and 133), to 
show the way in which the 
bar is grooved on the end 
for the feed-screw F, J J 
(Figures 132 and 134) simi- 
lar line of intersection and 
elevations, to show the man- 
ner in which the bar is re- 
cessed for the slide E and 
rodD. 

In using these bars the 
work is first aligned and 
clamped in position on the 
machine (with the boring 
bar between the centers) in 
such manner that the pivot 
pin C is exactly in the cen- 
ter of the pillow block or 
box. In starting a cut 
through the work, the cut- 
ter-head is rotated to the 
position shown by dotted 
lines at c (Figure 131). The 
tool a is then set to the 
correct radius and the cut 
started in the usual way 
without disturbing the posi- 
tion of the bar or work 
throughout the entire oper- 
ation. 

For boring the boxes and 
bearings of spheroidal journals or joints, commonly 
termed "ball and socket joints," the cutter-head is 
located and pivoted near the end of the bar, the tool 




LATHE WORK. 177 

being rotated on its pivot by means 01 a shaft (which 
passes partly through the bar) and bevel gears con- 
nected on the shaft and cutter-head. 







173 



CHAPTER XIX. 

Lathe Work. — Continued. 

LINING UP LATHE SPINDLES. 

The subject of setting a lathe to turn straight, and 
also of making the alignment of the live-spindle per- 
fect, is one to which much importance is attached in 
every well-regulated shop. 

There are many ways in which this can be accom- 
plished. One method (which we have in our own 
practice used in preference to others) is shown in Fig- 




Fig. 135. 



ure 135. It consists of two trams A and B, which are 
bolted to the face-plate of the lathe. 

The short-armed tram A is made of iron or steel, 
and the long-armed tram B of wood with a steel 
pointer or needle a. 



LATHE WORK. 179 

To set the lathe to turn straight, bolt the short tram 
A onto the face-plate C, then slide the tail-stock D 
along the shears until the centers almost touch (as 
shown by dotted lines at D'), then set the tram to 
touch on one side of the dead-center, when, by turning 
the face-plate, a glance will show w T hich way to move 
the tail-stock to bring the center in line, and it will 
also show at once to what extent the live-spindle has 
dropped or worn down, if any. 

To line up the live-spindle two trams must be 
used : first the short tram (as directed) and then the 
long tram. 

It w T ill be found that the spindles of any lathe can 
be set in line with great precision with these trams in 
the hands of a careful workman. And another thing 
in favor of their employment is that they can be made 
with very little trouble and are therefore always avail- 
able when other and more expensive devices are not. 

BORING AND TURNING WORK ON THE MONITOR CHUCK. 

A large proportion of the work that is commonly 
chucked on the face-plate of the lathe has two or more 
surfaces (which stand at different angles) to be oper- 
ated on. In most cases the horizontal axes of these 
surfaces stand on the same level, and would, if con- 
tinued through the work, terminate or converge in 
one common center. Such work as this is generally 
chucked as though each surface to be operated on was 
an independent and separate part of the work. Some- 
times the operations can be facilitated by making a 
series of chucks, especially for the work, on which it 
can be held in a different position as each surface has 
to be operated on, and in this way much time and 
labor can be saved and the work done more accurately ; 
but in most cases in ordinary practice, the work is 
chucked either in an ordinary lathe chuck, or on an 



180 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

angle-plate bolted to the face-plate of the lathe. But 
of the many excellent lathe chucks on the market, 
there are none capable of holding the work so that 
more than one surface can be operated on at one 
setting of the work in the chuck. 

So long as the horizontal axes of the different sur- 
faces of the work come on the same level and termi- 
nate in a common center (as explained above), there 
are two methods by which the work can be chucked 
and operated on at one setting. By the first method 
the work is set and bolted on a separate chucking 
plate, which is then boltd on an angle-plate to the 
face-plate of the lathe in such a way that one surface 
is in position for the operation ; then when this sur- 
face has been operated on, the supplementary plate is 
loosened (without changing the position of the angle- 
plate on the face-plate), and the plate and work turned 
until the next surface is in position for the operation ; 
the plate is then tightened up again and the operation 
proceeded with, and so on till the work is fin- 
ished. 

The amount of time and labor that can in all such 
operations be saved by this simple device is surprising, 
and as it is such as is available in every shop, there is 
therefore no excuse for employing a less efficient and 
more expensive method of doing the work. 

By the second method the work is held on a special 
chuck which can be swiveled in such manner as to 
bring the different parts and surfaces of the work into 
position for the operation. 

It would be impossible to find a chuck that is more 
eminently adapted to this purpose than the monitor 
chuck shown in Figures 85 and 86, which was spe- 
cially designed for this particular class of work. 

In Figures 87 and 88 the manner of chucking con- 
necting-rod brasses and cross-heads for planing on the 
monitor chuck has been shown. It is now proposed 



LATHE WORK. 



181 



to show how this work is hold on the same chuck for 
boring and turning. 






BORING AND TURNING CONNECTING-ROD BRASSES AND 
CROSS-HEADS ON THE MONITOR CHUCK. 

The next engraving, Figure 136, shows how the con- 
necting-rod brasses are chucked for boring and turning 
on the same monitor chuck, A B representing the 
chuck bolted to the face-plate C of the lathe, D chuck- 







Fig. 136. 

ing block bolted to the revolving plate B by the 
bolts a b (shown by dotted lines), F brasses held in the 
jaws of the chucking block D by the cap-plate G and 
bolts H H. 

When the brasses have been bored, turned and 
faced on the front side, the chuck and work are turned 






182 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



half way round, and the opposite side of the brasses 
brought into position to be turned and faced, thus 
completing the planing, boring, turning and facing 
at practically two operations and two chuckings, 
whereas, in ordinary practice, the brasses are usually 
chucked four times for the planing, and twice for the 
.boring and turning. 

Figure 137 shows a perspective view of a cross- 
head held on the monitor chuck for boring and 
turning for the cross-head pin (gudgeon) and piston 
rod. 




Tig. 137. 



The cross-head or work W is located and held in 
a shoe S (which is doweled into the revolving plate 
B) by the bolts a a a a and straps b b. As shown in 
the figure, the work is in position for boring the 
holes for the cross-head pin. 



LATHE WORK. 



183 



Figure 138 represents a side and front elevation of 
a cross-head chucked in a similar manner on the 
same chuck. In this instance a cross-head of another 
type has been selected for two reasons : first, to show 





Xf 




o yi © 




lii'i^fc 




i ; 




fllllliii'.L.QP^ 





— 










1 " / 


==. 




1 s Wi , 

3 J>r 


A 




BflE iff 






- 


■■-■■ miiiiii^jiiiiiiiBjj' 



Fig. 138. 

how the method of holding the work can be modified 
when the circumstances will permit, and, secondly, to 
show the position of the cross-head when boring the 
hub for the piston rod. 



CHUCKING OTHER WORK ON THE MONITOR CHUCK 
BORING AND TURNING. 



FOR 





1 






a' 

, , .1, rnmmfr-i 






.A 




IB 


— 




Je 






^ 









a 



Fig. 139. 

Figure 139 represents an elbow E held on the 
monitor chuck for turning the flanges a a'. The work 
is held on the chuck by means of the formed strap S 



184 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



and bolt b. It is shown in position for turning the 
flange a. 

Figure 140 shows the manner of chucking globe, 
gate, and check valves on the monitor chuck for the 
various operations thereon. 




Fig. 140. 

The w T ork W is held by the strap S and bolts b b 
on a formed spelter base D, which is doweled into 
the revolving plate B. 

Special chucking bases can be made of either 
spelter or babbitt-metal (or of lead either), for holding 
and aligning either regular or irregular shaped work 
on the revolving plate B, by banking around the work 
with prepared clay or molding sand (after the first 
piece of the work has been correctly aligned and set 



LATHE WORK. 185 

on improvised supports on the revolving plate B), and 
then filling the space in the mold thus formed 
(between the chucking plate and the work) with the 
molten metal as far as desired ; but before pouring the 
metal, the chucking plate B (and work) should be 
removed from the angle-plate A, to avoid cracking 
the latter by the expansion of the chucking plate as it 
becomes heated. 

It will be readily seen that much of the work of a 
similar nature to that shown can be done at less cost, 
and to better advantage, on this or a similar chuck, 
than by other methods. 

The face-plate C, shown in the foregoing engrav- 
ings, is a plain one, and is therefore particularly 
adapted for holding special chucking appliances, as 
they can be doweled thereon, and so avoid the 
necessity of having to reset them every time they are 
removed. 



186 



CHAPTER XX. 

Lathe Work. — Continued. 

TURNING AND BORING PACKING RINGS. 

The pistons and piston valves of steam engines, air 
and ammonia compressors, etc., are, with very few 
exceptions, packed with metallic (usually cast iron) 
packing rings, the making of which involves several 
processes of an interesting nature, and which are 
applicable to other classes of work. 

The cylindrical casting (ring), from which the 
packing rings are (after turning) cut, always has lugs 
cast on one end by which it can be chucked to the 
face-plate of the lathe, to be bored and turned. 




Fig. 141. 



The turning and boring of the outside and inside di- 
ameters of the casting is in ordinary practice performed 
as independent operations. Figure 141 shows how 
the two operations can be proceeded with simultane- 
ously, by employing two cutter-bars and tools. As 



LATHE WORK. 



187 



shown in the figure, W represents the casting (work), 
BBB the lugs and bolts by which it is held on the face- 
plate C, D D cutter-bars, a a' tools, which are adjusted 
to the cut by means of the adjusting screws E E. The 
cutter-bars are held in a flanged plate I (which has 
a tongue J fitting into the T slot) on the tool rest 
F by means of the straps G G and bolts H H, the 
latter parts being shown to better advantage in the 
perspective view, Figure 142, where similar reference 
letters are employed to denote the same parts. 




Fig. 142. 



When the casting has been turned on the outside 
and inside, the face b (Figures 141 and 142) should be 
trued up. The rings are then cut off by means of an 




Fig. 143. 

ordinary parting tool, or by employing either a solid 
or adjustable double-tongued parting tool, such as 
shown in Figure 143, the tongue a forming the parting 



188 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



tool, and the elongated tongue b regulating the width 
at which to cut the rings off. The tool can be 
adjusted for wear by the adjusting screw d, Figure 144, 




Fig. 144. 

where the parting tool D is shown in operation. 

When the ring has been cut off, the face b is again 
trued up and the operation repeated for the next ring. 

A solid double-tongued parting tool is made the 
same as the adjustable tool (Figure 143) except that it 
is not adjustable. 

The unfinished side of the rings can now be trued 
by chucking them on or in the jaws of an ordinary 
lathe chuck or an expanding chuck made for the 
purpose. 

In turning packing rings they are always turned 
larger than the bore of the cylinder in which they are 
to work; the amount of which enlargement is equal 
to one-third of whatever metal is cut away in splitting 
the ring. The old-time practice of cutting a piece out of 
the ring in a straight line, but at an angle to the face 
of the same, and then springing it into the cylinder 
and filing down the high places until it fits the 
cylinder, has become obsolete. In modern practice 
the rings are cut as shown in Figure 145, where the full 
amount to be cut out is divided between the two sides 
of the ring, the part a being already cut out and the 



LATHE WORK. 189 

part b marked off ready for cutting. When the ring 
is cut it appears, when open, as shown at A, and when 
closed, as shown at B (Figure 146). By this method, 
if the joint is well made, the ring is equal to a solid 
ring and will remain steam tight as long as it is in 
use. 








A 




■lit-' 


rH 




'■III 




it* 


7* 




Km.-, 


• 


' > 


B 



Fig. 145. Fig. 146. 

Instead of fitting the rings by hand filing as form- 
erly, they are now turned to fit the cylinders, which is 
not only more expeditious, but more accurate. 

In most shops when the rings have been split they 
are drilled and riveted together again at the joint (as 
shown by dotted lines at a [ring B, Figure 146]), which 
is done (for lack of a better means) to hold the rings 
together w T hile they are being turned, a practice that 
is objectionable, inasmuch as it weakens the tongues of 
the joints and frequently causes them to crack or 
break. 

A simpler way to hold the 
rings close together (and to ob- 
viate the necessity of riveting) 
while they are being chucked 
is to use a compression clamp, 
such as shown in Figure 147, the 
body B of which is made of thin 
band or sheet iron, to which two 
lugs a b are riveted; the clamp 
is tightened up by means of the n g . 147, 

bolt and nut c. 

The rings are usually turned in pairs to fit the 
cylinder in which they are to work, and should be 







190 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

held together while they are being chucked in the 
compression clamp, as shown in Figures 148 and 149, 
which represent a side and plan view of the clamp B 
and rings A A. 








Fig. 148. Fig. 149. Fig. 150. 

In turning an occasional pair of rings, they can be 
held in the clamp as shown above and then set true 
(by the inside) on the face-plate of the lathe ; they are 
then bolted to the face-plate by three (or four) clamps, 
placing one clamp directly over the joint, as shown (by 
dotted lines) in Figure 150. A parallel or distance 
piece should be interposed between the work and the 
face-plate directly opposite each clamp to permit of 
the tool passing right across the face of the work 
without touching the face-plate. 

When the piston head itself is of the compound form 
(which term embraces all forms except solid piston 
heads), the piston can be used as an arbor, and the 
rings turned therein by inserting a paper washer be- 
tween the piston head and the rings to admit of 
the rings being tightened up sufficiently to hold them 
while being turned, clamping them together while 
chucking with the compression clamp. 

When turning such rings in quantities,, a chucking 
arbor (which somewhat resembles a piston), such as 
shown in Figure 151,, is employed for holding the 



LATHE WORK. 



191 



rings. In the figure A A' represents the arbor and 
fixed head, B B' the rings, C adjustable follower-head, 
D nut by which the follower-head is tightened 
up. 

This also represents the manner in which the rings 
are held for turning when chucked in the piston 
itself. 

Sometimes packing rings are made thick on one and 
thin on the other side of their diameter, and then 
afterwards split on the thinnest side, on the supposi- 
tion that when the ring is sprung into its place in the 
cylinder it will expand equally in all directions, 
thereby maintaining a true circle at 
all parts of its diameter. This form 
of packing ring has almost fallen into 
disuse now, as in practice they have 
not been found to give any better 
service than the ordinary form of 
packing ring, the thickness of which 
is the same at all parts of its diam- 
eter; in fact, it is thought in present 
practice that when the ring is of the 
same thickness throughout it is more 
serviceable, and for that reason the 
rings are, in modern practice, trued on the inside 
as well as on the outside after they have been 
split. In finishing an occasional pair of rings, if 
they have been chucked on the face-plate for turning 
the outside as already described, it is only necessary 
after turning the outside to transfer the clamps from 
the inside to the outside without disturbing the posi- 
tion of the w T ork, and the rings can be turned both in- 
side and outside at one chucking. But when the rings 
are made in quantities they are trued up in a special 
chuck (which is made to hold as many as desired) as 
shown partly in section in Figure 152, where A repre- 
sents the rings (six in number), B B the chuck, C C, L 




Fig. 151. 



192 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



M 



bolts by which the rings are held in the chuck, D D 

bolts by which the chuck 
is held on the face-plate E. 
The compression clamp 
(or a modification of the 
same) (Figure 147) is also 
used for compressing the 
xg ' ' rings in entering the pis- 

ton (with the rings inserted therein) in the cylinder. 




TOOLS FOR EXPANDING THE LININGS OF BABBITTED 
BEARINGS AND COPPER-LINED PUMP CYLINDERS, 



In all forms of babbitt -lined bearings an effort is 
always made to solidify and compress the babbitt-metal 
firmly to its place. Occasionally this is done by 
driving one or more drift plugs through the bearing, 
thereby enlarging the bore and compressing the metal, 
but on split and sectional bearings it is mostly done 
by hammering around the inner surfaces. 

When the bearings are to be bored out the babbitted 
linings can be expanded to better advantage, and in a 
much superior manner with the tools employed for a 
similar purpose in expanding the inserted copper lin- 
ings of pump cylinders. These linings are sometimes 
as much as one-quarter inch in thickness, and some idea 
can be had of the efficiency of the tools and methods 
employed in expanding the linings in the cylinders, 
when it is stated that after years of service the linings 
have to be cut out when it is necessary to remove and 
replace them with new ones. 

In both cases the method of operating is precisely 
the same, and is as follows : 

If the bearing or work is of such form that it can 
be chucked and revolved in the machine, the roller 



LATHE WORK. 



193 



tool, shown in Figure 153, is employed for expanding 
the lining ; it is held in the tool post and fed through 




Fig. 153. 



the work in the same way as a boring tool would be. 
But when the work is such that it has to be chucked 
stationary on the machine, and bored with a boring 
bar, the roller tool, shown in Figure 154 (which is the 
same as shown in Figure 74), is inserted in the bar or 




Fig. 154. 



cutter-head, and the lining expanded by that means, 
feeding the tool through the work the same as in 
boring. 



mm 



194 



CHAPTER XXL 
Lathe Work. — Continued, 

SUPPORT FOR LIVE-SPINDLE. 

It may be safely assumed that very little, if any, 
effort of a practical nature has ever been made in 
general practice to relieve the strains put on the live- 
spindle of a lathe in chucking heavy work on the face- 
plate. An attempt is often made to minimize the 
strains by placing a rod of iron or steel between the 
centers, which does not amount to very much at the 
best ; and if the work has to be bored out, unless the 
bore is a large one, this method cannot be used at all, 
as the rod would be in the way of the boring tools. 
The only practical means by which this has been 
accomplished has been by placing roller bearings 
under the rim of the face-plate. On pit-lathe work, 
when boring and turning pulleys and gears of large 
diameter, we have on several occasions seen this done 
by placing two rollers of small diameter (journaled in 
a block of hard wood) under the rim of the face-plate 
and then blocking them up to take as much of the 
strain off the live-spindle as possible. On other 
occasions we have seen the same arrangement applied 
under the rim of the pulley itself, after a portion has 
been turned. 

A simple arrangement employed for the same 
purpose, but of a more substantial character, is shown in 



LATHE WORK. 



195 



Figure 15&, which consists of two roller bearings A A' 
journaled in the brackets B B', which are adjustable 
on the saddle block E by means of the adjusting 




Fig. 155. 

screw D. The roller bearings are adjusted to the rim 
of the face-plate C before the work is chucked thereon, 
the adjusting screw having a right and left hand 
thread on its respective ends. 

When the rollers have been adjusted, the brackets 
B W are fixed to the saddle plate E by the binding 
screws a a'. This device will be found to be of great 
assistance in turning and boring heavy work on the 
lathe, and will not on ordinary work interfere with the 
movements of the lathe carriage. It may, however, 
be necessary to modify the construction somewhat to 
suit individual cases. As the face-plate is on such work, 
always revolving at a slow speed, it will be a consider- 
able time before any perceptible wear occurs on the rim. 

EXTENDING THE DIAMETER OF A FACE-PLATE. 

It is sometimes necessary to bore and turn an 
occasional piece of work (such as a large pulley or 
gear wheel) on the lathe that needs to be chucked on 






196 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



a face-plate of large diameter, and that a face-plate of 
such dimensions is not available for the job. In such 
cases, instead of chucking the work on blocking inter- 
posed between the arms (or other parts) of the work 
and the face-plate, the capacity of the tace-plate should 
be increased to suit the work, which can in most 
cases be done in a very simple manner by employing 
the means already at hand, an instance of which is 
shown in Figure 156, where the diameter of the 



fZ\ 




Fig. 156. 

face-plate C has been increased by bolting three 
common link-straps A A' A" thereon, the work being 
bolted to the straps instead of the face-plate. 

SLIDING LATHE CHUCKS. 

One of the oldest forms of lathe chucks is the slid- 
ing face-plate chuck, which in all probability origi- 
nated from the " Jewelers' eccentric chuck," of which a 
description was published in the " Mechanics' Maga- 
zine" (London, Oct. 18th, 1823). 

This form of chuck has been employed in one of the 
largest railway shops in England for more than thirty 
years, for holding eccentrics, pulleys, small cranks and 
a variety of similar work while being turned. 



LATHE WORK. 



197 




Fig. 157. 



There are two distinct forms of these chucks. One 

form is employed ex- 
tensively as an adjust- 
able chucking arbor 
for holding such work 
as that mentioned 
above, and the other 
form is used for hold- 
ing templates, jigs, 
die-plates, and other 
work of a similar na- 
ture (in addition to 
holding the work 
specified above) that 
has to be accurately 
spaced and bored. 
Figure 157 represents the first form of these sliding 
chucks with a pulley P chucked thereon in position 
for turning. In construction the chuck consists of a 
body A, a sliding head B threaded at C to fit the 
adjusting screw D. The hub E is threaded to fit the 
nose of the live-spindle of 
the lathe in the same man- 
ner as other chucks. The 
arbor F (shown in Figure 
158, which represents a 
sectional side view of the 
chuck and work) is made 
of small diameter, and is 
threaded on the outside to 
receive the threaded bush- 
ings which are made of 
various diameters to fit 
the bores of the different 
classes and sizes of the 
work. The arbor is, when 
once set, held in position by the binding screw G.' 




Fig. 158. 



198 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



Figure 159 shows the second form of sliding lathe 
chuck, with an eccentric chucked on the arbor ready for 
turning. In construction this chuck consists of a base 
A, a sliding chucking plate (which for convenience will 




Fig. 159. 

be designated as chuck) B, which is adjusted by means 
of the screw C. The work (eccentric) W is held on 
the arbor D, the diameter of which has been increased 
by the bushing E to fit the bore of the work which is 
held by the set screw F (shown in Figure 160). 

To facilitate the operation of setting the chuck or 
work, the base A is graduated by fastening an ordi- 
nary steel rule or scale on the side, as shown at G, 
the indications being read by means of the index 
finger H ; the sub-divisions are more accurately read 
by means of the graduations I on the end of the 



LATHE WORK. 



199 



screw C. The base A is doweled in the face- 
plate J by the dowel-pins 
a a', and is held in position 
by the bolts b b, Figure 
160, which represents a 
sectional side view of the 
chuck and work. The ar- 
bor D is screwed into the 
chuck B, as shown at c, and 
can be removed when not 
required. 

When turning eccentrics 
on this chuck, the eccentric 
is first bored to size and the 
hole drilled and tapped in 
the hub for the set screw F, 
which admits of the eccen- 
tric being held on the arbor 
while it is being turned in 
precisely the same way as 
it is held on the crank-shaft 
or axle of the engine, thereby avoiding the tendency 
to spring it out of true after it is turned, which often 
happens when it is held for turning by other means. 
The sides d d' of the eccentric are always turned be- 
fore the crown e (Figure 160) is finished. 

It is always difficult to hold eccentrics of large 
diameter while turning their outer surfaces, if they 
are held on the arbor by the set screw alone, as the 
strain exerted by the cut is very considerable at certain 
points of the work ; but, as such eccentrics are in most 
cases made as shown in Figure 159, this strain can 
always be equalized by bolting a stop-pin or carrier 
g against the arm f, as near as possible to the outer 
diameter of the work. 

When the chuck is used for spacing the holes in 
die-plates or for other work as mentioned above, the 




Fig. 160. 



200 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



work is held on the chuck B, as shown in Figure 161, 
which represents a front elevation of the chuck only 
with the work W clamped thereon. 

On die-plates the holes nearly always come in 
straight rows which run either lengthwise or crosswise 
of the work. 

On jig or template work the holes may be what is 
termed " staggered," that is, they may be located 
anywhere on the jig or template, but it is always 
possible to set the work on the chuck in such 
manner that two or more of the holes can be brought 
into position for the boring at one setting by sliding 
the chuck and work across the face-plate. 

Before laying out the 
work it should be ma- 
chined and finished to size 
all over; the upper surface 
is then "coppered" with 
the ordinary blue vitriol 
solution, and the parallel 
lines a a' drawn length- 
wise of the work, to in- 
dicate the centers of the 
holes in that direction; 
similar lines b b r are then 
drawn transversely across 
the work to indicate the cen- 
ters in that direction also. 
In ordinary practice the work would then be spaced 
and laid off in circles as shown by dotted lines in the 
figure on the left row (the row on the right being 
already bored, and also the first hole of the left rcrw), 
but in this case it is only necessary to lay off the 
parallel lines a a' to set the work by on the chuck, 
and the transverse lines b b' to indicate the center of 
the first hole of each row. The work is then set 
on the chuck by means of a tool such as shown in 





\ 


<: 


f^i' 


£jj 




r « 


& 






B 


i W 

•xli 

J 


X 


i 


v 




. --M.V-- 



Fig. 161. 



LATHE WORK. 201 

Figure 162 (blocking it out from the face-plate by 
the parallels c c), in such manner that as the chuck 
and work are moved across the face-plate the line 
a will be coincident with the axial line of the lathe 
spindle; at every point of its movement, the holes 
are then spaced by means of the measuring screw C 
(Figures 159 and 160), not depending on the 
measuring screw alone to determine the correctness of 
the divisions, but gauging the accuracy of the same by 




Fig. 162. 

means of calipers; the best form for this purpose 
being the kind termed " odd-legged calipers" (of 
which a description w T ill be hereafter given), by means 
of which the slightest possible variation can be readily 
detected. 

If the T slots of the chuck are planed parallel with 
the slides of the chuck and are all of the same width, 
the work can be more easily and correctly set by hav- 
ing a tongued parallel P (made to fit into the T slots) 
against which one side of the work can be set, and 
which will ensure the correct alignment ( of all the 
holes which happen to come on that row. And in 
such cases as that shown in the figure, where the op- 
posite row a' of holes is exactly the same distance 
from the edge of the w r ork as the row a (a case in 



202 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



point which frequently occurs in practice), it is only 
necessary to turn the work end for end (which has 
already been done in this case), and this row of holes 
is in position to be bored. 

When there are intermediate rows of holes to be 
bored, the position of the work is changed to bring 
such holes into line, by changing the parallel P from 
one slot to another, or by interposing other parallels 
of standard thickness between the work and the paral- 
lel P in an obvious manner. 

On die-plate and similar work that requires to be 
spaced with great precision, and which has to be hard- 
ened after the holes are bored, it is best to bore all the 
holes a trifle below size, say two or three one-thou- 
sandths of an inch, and then after the work has been 
hardened (which is sure to change the position of the 
holes somewhat) to re-chuck it in the same manner as 
before, and then grind the holes to size. This is 
about the only practical method by which the holes in 
hardened die-plates and similar work can be correctly 
sized and spaced. 

On jig and template work the same principle of 
chucking is followed but is modified to suit the 
circumstances. 



203 



CHAPTER XXII. 

Lathe Work. — Continued. 

TURNING CURVED SURFACES. 

The turning of external curved surfaces can be ac- 
complished either with or without special appliances. 
When turned without any special appliance the work 
is held and driven in the ordinary way, and the posi- 
tion of the tool is changed by hand as it is fed across 
the surface of the work by the carriage feed in such 
manner that the work is turned to fit a template made 
for the purpose. This is not what might be called 
" good practice," but if there is only one or a few of 
such pieces to be turned, it is the best that can be done 
under the circumstances, as in all probability it 
would not pay to rig up any contrivance, however 
simple, just for this particular job. 

When the w T ork is done by means of special appli- 
ances, the nature of such appliances depends entirely 
on the form of the surface to be turned, that is, 
whether the surface of the work would represent a 
true circle (ball or sphere) or the arc of a circle (as in 
turning what is termed a " crown-faced pulley "), or is 
merely curved (as in turning the body of a car axle). 

Formers are usually employed for turning curved 
surfaces and may consist of a plain or slotted former 
bar, or grooved former guide (attached to the slides or 
other parts of the lathe according to the construction of 



204 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



the lathe or the space in which the tool has to operate), 
and an arm or bracket extending from the tool rest to 
the former with which it is connected by means of a 
roller or rollers in such manner that the position of 
the tool point is continually changed as it is fed across 
the surface of the work. 

Figure 163 represents an appliance which is used 
for turning the curved body of a car axle. 




Fig. 163. 



The curved former bar A is bolted on the brackets B B 
which are held on the lathe bed ; the arm C is held 
on the base D of the compound slide rest by the bolts 
a a' and is connected with the bar A by the rollers 
b b', the cross-feed screw E being disconnected from the 
tool rest altogether. 

It will be seen that as the tool is fed along the work 
it is moved in or out, thus conforming the surface 
turned to the shape of the former bar. 



LATHE WORK. 



205 



Figure 164 represents a similar device employed 
for turning " crown-faced pulleys." 




Fig. 164. 



In this case the former A is bolted on the one end 
to the tail-stock B of the lathe, and on the other end 
to a saddle plate C located on the inner V's of the 
lathe bed. A slot or guide groove a extends along the 
center of the former A ; in this slot the roller b (which 
is attached by a stud bolt to the base of the tool rest) 
works. The cross-feed screw is disconnected and the 
tool operated the same as in the preceding example. 

The larger types of lathes which are designated in 
the machine shop as "Bull Lathes" usually have what 
is termed a "double slide compound tool rest," the two 
upper slides being intended to relieve the lower slides 
which are too heavy to be operated w T ith the same ease 
and facility as the upper slides (except on long, heavy 
cuts), and also to admit of taper surfaces being turned. 



206 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



On this class of lathes there are two methods of fix- 
ing a former on the lower auxiliary slide for turning 
curved work, as shown in the following Figures 165 
and 166. 

In Figure 165 the former A is fitted to the base a of 
the auxiliary slide B, and is bolted thereto in such 
manner as not to interfere with the working of the 




Fig, 165. 

slide rest ; the roller b is screwed on the end of the 
upper auxiliary slide C, the feed screw of which has 
been removed. 

In Figure 166 a similar former A and roller b are 
employed for the same purpose and are held on the 
lower auxiliary slide, which is in this case turned 
crosswise of the lathe carriage. The tool is fed across 
the work by means of the upper auxiliary slide. 



LATHE WORK. 



20' 



This method of fixing the former on the slide is only 
resorted to when the space in which the tool has to 
operate is insufficient to admit of the lower auxiliary 
slide being placed lengthwise of the carriage (as in the 
preceding example), as it is only possible to turn nar- 
row surfaces by this means, on account of the limited 
movement of the upper auxiliary slide, which move- 
ment seldom exceeds nine inches. 




Fig. 166. 



Whenever formers are employed in the above man- 
ner, the curvature of the former should be exactly the 
same in the center of the groove or bar as that 
required for the surface of the work. 

When used on a lathe having only a single auxil- 
iary tool rest (as in Figures 163 and 164), the tool is 
adjusted to the cut by the auxiliary slide rest which is 
set parallel with the regular cross-slide and is fed 
across or along the work by the regular carriage feed. 
And when used on a lathe having a double auxiliary 
slide rest (as in Figures 165 and 166), the tool is ad- 
justed to the cut by the regular cross-slide feed screw, 



208 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

and is traversed across the surface of the work by 
either of the auxiliary slides according to the manner 
in which the former is arranged on the lower auxiliary 
slide. 

Sometimes the auxiliary slides are operated by 
power, but in most cases they are operated by hand — 
a case in point in machine-shop practice which is 
neither advisable or necessary, as there is in every in- 
stance (without any exception whatever) several 
simple and inexpensive methods by which either or 
both slides can be operated automatically. 

A hand-fed tool is never as efficient or economical 
as a machine-fed tool, for under the most favorable 
circumstances the hand-fed tool is always irregular in 
its action, and consequently the results are seldom as 
satisfactory as when a positive feed is employed. 

SPHERICAL TURNING. 

All tools for spherical or (as it is commonly termed) 
•'ball" turning operate on the same principle, which 
is that of a cutter-head, tool rest, or equivalent appli- 
ance, whose vertical axis is coincident with the axis of 
the ball or sphere to be turned, or, what amounts to the 
same thing, with the axis of the live-spindle of the 
lathe or machine, and which is capable of being ro- 
tated on its pivot or axis in such manner that a tool 
fixed in the cutter-head or tool rest, with its point 
or cutting edge exactly on the same level as the 
lathe centers, will, when set at any distance from 
the axis of the work, describe a true circle or arc 
around the same, whose radius, when measured from 
the axis of the work, will be the same at every point of 
its circumference, thereby producing (when the tool is 
adjusted to the cut, and the work is revolving in the 
ordinary way, and the cutter-head or tool rest is ro- 
tated on its axis [pivot] as described) a true sphere 



LATHE WORK. 



209 



whose diameter measures the same at every point of 
its circumference. 

Figure 167 represents one form of tool rest for 




Fin. 167. 



spherical turning, with the ball G and tool D in 
position for the operation. In construction the rest 
consists of a base A, dove-tailed on the bottom to fit 
into or over the cross-slide of the lathe carriage, and 
bored at a to receive the pivot pin a' of the tool rest 
B which is slotted at b for the tool post C ; the tool D 
can be adjusted sufficiently for all practical purposes 
by means of the adjusting screw E and set screw E' ; 
the body of the rest is drilled at c for the insertion of 
the lever F, by means of which the tool rest and tool 
are rotated (fed) around the work as it revolves in the 
lathe or machine. 

On smaller lathes the base A is fitted directly on 
the lathe bed, which can also be done on the larger 
lathes when desired. 

The tool rest B can be fitted with a slide for adjust- 
ing the tool in place of the slot b, if preferred. 



210 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



For turning brass and other soft metal balls of small 
diameter the above is an excellent appliance ; but for 
iron or steel balls of any diameter a revolving sliding 
tool rest should be employed. 




Fig. 168. 

Figure 168 represents a sliding tool rest for spheri- 
cal turning. A base plate (not shown) is fitted onto 
the cross-slide ways of the lathe carriage , then upon 
this base plate is fitted the base A (of the tool rest B) 
which is circular in form, and is geared at C to 
engage with the worm D. The worm shaft F is 
journaled on the lathe carriage in the brackets a a', 
and on the lathe bed in the bracket a", and is 
actuated from the screw-cutting gears G. The method 
of operating is so clearly shown in the engraving that 
further explanation is thought to be unnecessary, 
except to touch upon the two most important points, 
viz.: First, the imperative necessity of having the 
vertical axis of the work and the pivot pin of the tool 
rest coincident, and, secondly, of having the point or 
cutting edge of the tool exactly level with the horizon- 
tal axes of the lathe spindle and work. 

If there is any divergence from a true coincidence in 
either case, the ball would not be turned a true 
sphere, but would be oval to just twice the extent that 
the tool rest, or tool point, are out of a true align- 
ment. 



211 



CHAPTER XXIII. 
Lathe Work. — Continued, 

TURNING AND BORING PULLEYS. 

Turning and boring pulleys is one of the most com- 
mon operations in the whole range of machine-shop 
practice, and for that reason is a part of the work in 
which every machinist is interested. 

In many shops pulleys are made in such quantities 
that special machines are employed for their produc- 
tion. Sometimes the chucks in which the pulleys are 
held for boring are made self-centering, thereby 
avoiding the necessity of having to set the work every 
time another piece is chucked. Considerable ingenuity 
is displayed in the design and construction of some of 
the chucks employed for this purpose, and when th^y 
are employed in connection with other self-locating 
and operating tools, the work can be performed by un- 
skilled help, as in such cases there is no measuring to 
be done, and no setting of the work, and nothing to 
get out of place, the tool maker or the supervisor keep- 
ing everything in order and supervising the work in 
general. 

In most shops, however, the pulleys are held in an 
ordinary lathe chuck or bolted to the face-plate of the 
lathe for boring, and are turned between the lathe cen- 
ters on an arbor or mandrel which is driven tight into 
the hub, a practice which necessitates the employment 
of a separate mandrel for each size of pulley bore, except 



212 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



in those cases where the mandrel is made extra long, 
and is turned to fit two or more bores. 

It is not always an easy matter to drive the 
mandrel into the pulley tight enough for turning, or 
to remove it again after the pulley has been turned, 
and it not infrequently occurs that the pulley arms are 
cracked or broken in driving the mandrel in or out. 
Therefore, when a mandrel is used for this purpose at 
all, a better and safer way is to use one that is made 
a good sliding fit in the hole (bore), which can be in- 
serted and removed more expeditiously without having 
to be driven either in or out. Small pulleys and solid 
and webbed pulleys (pulleys in which the rim is joined 
to the hub by means of a web or webs) are turned on 
a mandrel such as shown in Figure 169, where A A' 




Fig. 169, 



represents the mandrel turned at C to fit the bore, and 
enlarged to form a head at B, against which the hub 
of the pulley is held by the loose washer D and jam 
nut E, the work being held and driven as shown in 
Figure 170, which represents a small flanged pulley P 
chucked by the bore on the mandrel A and held be- 
tween the centers of the lathe ready to be turned ; the 
head of the mandrel and the washer are recessed at 
F F' to afford a better contact for holding the hub of 
the work. 

When used for turning small work, the mandrel is 
made of iron or steel, but for larger work it can be 
made of cast iron and should have a hardened steel 



LATHE WORK. 



213 



center inserted in the end which revolves on the dead- 
center of the lathe. 




Fig. 170. 



For turning heavier and larger pulleys it is best to 
use cast-iron mandrels altogether, as they cost less to 
make and are harder and more durable than wrought 
iron. 




Fig. 171. 



Figure 171 represents an improved form of mandrel 
for turning pulleys and similar work. It is made in 
one piece with a hub or head A (which in form re- 



214 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

sembles a small face-plate) threaded at a to fit the 
nose of the live-spindle of the lathe, and a stem B 
which forms the arbor turned to fit the bore of the 
work, which is held or chucked thereon, as shown in 
Figure 173. 

Figure 172 represents a mandrel of the same type 




Fig. 172. 

as Figure 171, but modified so that the work, though 
held thereon in the same manner, can be turned be- 
tween the centers of the lathe. In each case a hard- 
ened center b is inserted in that end of the mandrel 
which turns on the dead-center. 

Figure 173 shows the manner of chucking the pul- 
ley on the mandrel in both cases. As shown therein, 
the work P (pulley) is held between the centers c c' of 
the lathe on the mandrel (shown in Figure 172) 
B by the link strap d and bolts e e, which draws the 
pulley hub up to the head A. To assist in driving 
the work a pin-dog or carrier f is employed in the 
head A in the usual way. 

When the body B is made to fit the bore of the 
work as it should, mandrels of this type are better 
than any other kind, and especially is this true of the 
type shown in Figure 171, which is far superior to 
anything else of the same character. 



LATHE W() UK. 



215 



It might be possible to make the body B to fit a 
smaller sized bore, and then to enlarge its diameter by 




Fig. 173. 

bushing for larger bores, but as we have not seen this 
tried, it is merely offered as a suggestion. 

SIMULTANEOUS PULLEY BORING AND TURNING. 

The most economical and expeditious way to turn 
and bore pulleys in the lathe is to perform the two 
operations simultaneously. The outfit required for 
doing the work in this manner is of a very simple and 
inexpensive character, and is such as can be applied to 
any lathe large m enough to swing the pulleys above 
the shears. The outfit required consists of a special 
chuck, on which the pulley is held by the arms, A 
boring bar, and, when necessary, a bracket for guiding 
and steadying the boring bar. There are two kinds of 
chucks employed for this purpose : one kind consists 
of three separate chucking jaws or brackets which can 



216 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

be bolted on the face-plate of the lathe, in the position 
best suited for holding the work ; the other kind 
consists of a chucking ring which can be set and 
bolted on the face-plate. In this case three chuck- 
ing jaws or brackets, similar to those mentioned 
above, are cast on the ring, as shown in Figure 174, 




Fig. 174. 

where A represents the ring or base, B W B" the 
brackets, C cap ; the brackets are provided at 
a a' a" with a recessed bearing or jaw to receive the 
arms of the pulley, which is then held in position by 
a cap C on each bracket. The application of this form 
of chuck is restricted to the holding of pulleys having 
six arms, but it can of course be arranged for holding 
pulleys having any other number of arms, an objection 
which does not exist when independent chucking 
brackets are used as mentioned above. 

To perform the operations of boring and turning 
simultaneously, the work (pulley) is chucked as shown 
in Figure 175, where P represents the work held on 
the chuck (Figure 174) A by the caps C C C", D face- 
plate to which the chuck and work are bolted, E 
boring bar, broken away at a to show the turning 



LATHE WORK. 



217 




218 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



tool, and keyed at b into the tail-spindle F, which is 
(in this case) provided with an automatic feed by 
means of the bevel gears c, which are driven by the 
shafts d and e, the shaft d being journaled in suitable 
bracket-bearings attached to the tail-stock G; the shaft 
e is driven by gearing (not shown) on the head end of 
the lathe. 




Fig. 176. 



In this case the live-spindle of the lathe is supposed 
to be a hollow one, which furnishes a means for guid- 
ing and steadying the boring bar on the head end of 
the lathe, thereby admitting (as will be seen) of the 
simultaneous performance of the two operations (boring 
and turning), with no extra appliances or special 
fixtures but the chuck A and boring bar E. In 
setting the pulley in this chuck a narrow strip of 
leather is interposed between the arms of the pulley 
and the chuck jaws, to avoid springing the work. 



LATHE WORK. -219 

For holding pulleys below twelve inches, a small 
chuck is used, but for holding pulleys whose diameter 
exceeds twelve inches, one chuck can be made to hold 
any pulley from twelve inches to five feet in diameter. 
Above that size it is best to use single (independent) 
chucking brackets, such as shown in Figure 176, where 
the work (pulley) P is held on the brackets A A (one of 
which has been removed), which are bolted on the 
face-plate D. 

In this case the work and appliances are represented 
partly in section in order to show the method em- 
ployed for simultaneous boring and turning when the 
live-spindle of the lathe is a solid one and cannot be 
used for guiding and steadying the boring bar, which 
must therefore be done by other means. The method 
shown in the figure represents that employed for bor- 
ing and turning light pulleys of small diameter, say 
below eighteen inches, the work being held on the 
brackets A A at a distance from the face-plate which 
will admit of the employment of a guide bracket B 
interposed between the work^ and the face-plate for 
guiding and steadying the boring bar E while the pul- 
ley is being bored. 

For boring and turning heavier and larger pulleys 
simultaneously, or when it is desired to perform the 
two operations independently, as in ordinary practice, 
but at one setting and chucking of the work, it is not 
good practice to chuck the work further out from the 
face-plate than is absolutely necessary. When the 
operations are performed in the ordinary way, the 
guide bracket B and boring bar E are not used, and 
consequently the work can be chucked closer to the 
face-plate, which is done by making the brackets A A 
as much shorter as desired. This is also done with 
larger and heavier work when it is desired to perform 
the two operations at the same time, the bracket for 
guiding the boring bar reaching through the arms of 



220 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



the pulley to the outside of the hub, as shown in Fig- 
ure 177, where similar reference letters denote the 
same parts. 




Fig. 177. 



Ordinarily the boring bar is fed through the work 
by hand, but there are several simple methods by 
which the tail-spindle of the lathe can be made to feed 
automatically. 



221 



CHAPTER XXIV. 
Lathe Work. — Continued. 

TURNING CRANKS. 

There is not a more instructive or interesting 
series of processes in the whole range of machine- 
shop work than those involved in the turning and 
making of solid and built-up cranks (the latter term 
applying to all forms of cranks which are made or 
built up in sections, regardless of the purpose for 
which they are used). Turning the pin of a solid 
crank is at all times a difficult operation, on account 
of the distance at which the tools have to extend 
(unsupported) from the tool-post, and the difficulty 
experienced in chucking and retaining the crank- 
shaft in position for and during the operation. 
Usually the crank-shaft is chucked or held directly 
between the lathe centers, the body (or shaft) being 
offset to the amount of the crank's throw. It is 
therefore an impossibility to use the ordinary speeds 
and feeds under such circumstances ; for if such were 
to be employed, the tool would dig into the work to such 
an extent as to throw it out of the centers, or other- 
wise spoil it by turning a deep groove therein, to 
remove which the pin would have to be turned below 
the diameter required. 

In Figures 178 and 179 is shown a method of 
turning solid cranks whereby the above objections are 
almost (if not entirely) removed. In this case, instead 
of holding the crank-shaft between the lathe centers 
in the ordinary w T ay, one end of the shaft is clamped 
firmly in a V block which is bolted to the face-plate 



222 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



as shown in Figure 178, where W W represents the 
crank-shaft in position for turning the pin, supported 




Fig. 178. 

on the one end in the V block A on the face-plate B, 
and on the other end in the usual way on the center 
C, by means of the crank-block D. In turning very 
heavy crank-shafts which would not be likely to be 
sprung of their own weight and in tightening the 
dead-center C up this method is usually sufficient for 
holding the work while the pin F is being turned. 
But in turning the pins of crank-shafts that are more 
slender in construction, and which would be certain 
to spring (if not of their own weight) when the center 
is tightened up, the shaft should be supported in an 
entirely different manner, in fact the dead-center 
should only be used as an auxiliary support, or as an 



LATHE WORK. 



223 



additional safeguard to prevent the work from twist- 
ing in its supports. This is accomplished by employ- 
ing an eccentric E (whose throw is twice that of the 
crank) in the manner shown. The eccentric is bored 
to fit the body of the crank-shaft, and can be adjusted 
in an obvious manner concentric with the crank-pin F 
by means of the set screws a a' in the lugs b, which 
are cast on the eccentric for this purpose. When the 
eccentric has been correctly set, it is journaled in a 
steady-rest G in the ordinary way. 

The crank-center block D is shown keyed on the 
shaft, which furnishes another excellent means of 
securing the precise location of the crank-pin and key- 
seat when such is desired for the purpose explained 
elsewhere. The weight H is bolted to the face-plate 
to counter-balance the work and attachments. By 
the above arrangement, one of the most serious 
difficulties of crank-shaft turning is overcome. The 
next and really the most serious difficulty of any is 

that of the overhanging 
tool. This is also readily 
overcome by the method 
shown in Figure 179, 
where the tool T is shown 
supported on a narrow 
bracket I which is fastened 
to the tool-rest J; the tool is 
drilled on the under side at 
c' for the reception of the 
dowel-pin c, which prevents the tool from moving 
sideways under a heavy cut. The thickness of the 
bracket I is made slightly less than that of the tool. 

In turning, the shaft itself, it is supported in a 
steady-rest which is applied in the same relative 
position as shown in Figure 178, but journaled 
directly on the shaft, after a portion has been turned 
for that purpose. 




Fig. 179. 



224 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

The construction of a built-up crank calls for the 
following important operations: Making sliding, 
working, driving and shrinkage fits, these operations 
practically constituting in some form or other the 
whole principle of turning and boring. 

The first operations consist in roughing out the 
shafts and discs, then in turning the ends of the 
shafts to fit in the hub of the discs. The holes in the 
discs are always bored (and sometimes reamed) to 
standard size, making the allowance for the driving 
fits on the shafts. There is no definite rule for 
determining the exact allowance to be made for driving 
fits, and where such rules are given, they are always 
arbitrary and consequently are only adapted for the 
work and under the conditions for which they were 
made. A good rule to follow for general purposes 
is to make the shaft y^" larger than the hole 
into which it has to be driven, but this allowance 
may have to be increased or decreased according to 
the requirements, which are governed by the follow- 
ing conditions : The amount of metal around the hole, 
the length and diameter of the same, and the force 
available for driving the shaft therein. 

The crank-discs are either chucked on the face-plate 
or held in an ordinary lathe chuck to bore the hub for 
the shaft and to rough off the outside, and then, if 
desired, while the disc is still in position, the hole for 
the crank-pin can be roughed out to near the finished size 
by means of the boring attachment shown in Figure 
124, but in most cases the discs are chucked sepa- 
rately to rough out the pin-hole. 

The method of chucking the discs for the above 
operations is shown in Figures 180 and 181, which 
represent a front and side elevation (partly in section) 
of the crank-disc A chucked on the arbor B to the 
face-plate C, in position for the operation. When the 
first disc has been set on the chuck ready for the 



LATHE WORK. 



225 



operation, a stop-plate E is bolted to the face-plate in 
such a manner as to abut against the boss D, thereby 
serving as a means for locating all the subsequent 
discs to be operated on. The crank-pin hole is never 
bored to size until after the disc is keyed on the shaft. 





Fig. 180. 



Fig. 181. 



When the shaft has been turned and the disc bored, 
the shaft is driven (or pressed) into the disc and keyed 
in place ; it is then put into the lathe and the front 
(pin) side of the disc finished to size. 

The shrinking together of a double built-up crank, 
such as the one under consideration, furnishes one of 
the best examples obtainable for describing the re- 
quirements for making shrinkage fits in general, 
inasmuch as the action occurring during the shrinking 
process, and the permanent disposition of the metal 
(in cooling off), can be very accurately followed and 
traced. 

Figure 182 represents a double (center) built-up 
crank shrunk together by a process to be hereafter 
shown. When the holes for the crank-pin are bored 
parallel with the axis of the shaft, and the ends of the 
bosses are faced at right angles to the same, and the 



226 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



crank is shrunk together, as in ordinary practice, the 
crank will, when placed between the centers of the 
lathe, be found to be out of true at the points c c' to 





2> 


a 




^Ci 


]= 






O' 






=^^^^^^^^^^=^= 


— 


A' 


1 


71 
c 





.Figr. iS£. 



an extent which is seldom less than T ^- W ,, t and 
when measured between the points a a', the point 
a' will always measure less than the point a by 
about yVo"* These differences vary somewhat 
with different sized cranks, but will be found to occur 
with remarkable regularity on the same sized cranks 
when they are put together under the same con- 
ditions, and therefore it is possible to devise and 
employ such means as will prevent the inaccuracy in 
both cases. The crank-shafts can be made to run 
perfectly true after the crank is shrunk together by 
setting the work so as to bore the crank-pin hole taper 
(with the axis of the crank-shaft) to a degree which 
shall correspond to one-half of the amount the crank- 
shaft runs out of true in the lathe. And in the same 
manner the difference in the distance between the 
points a a' can be remedied by facing the ends of the 
crank-pin boss off more on one side than on the other, 
in the same proportion as above. 

While the above differences are directly traceable to 
the fact that the work is always (in this case) unevenly 
heated, thereby causing it to expand more in one 
direction than another, it also proves very conclu- 



LATHE WORK. 227 

sively that when a piece of work is shrunk in place it 
does not shrink back again (in cooling off) to its 
original shape, a fact which we have been able to 
verify repeatedly in our own practice. And hence, 
for the same reason, the excessive allowance usually 
given in the tabulated rules for making shrinkage fits 
are altogether uncalled for. An excellent rule for 
measuring the allowance to be made in making 
shrinkage fits was given in the " American Machinist" 
several years ago; this rule was to allow T oW 
for every inch of the hole, and tA^" m addition. 
This rule is amply sufficient for all practical purposes, 
and agrees very closely with the comparisons we have 
made personally in many shops to obtain a rule 
applicable to this purpose. The only class of work 
with which we are acquainted, where the above rule 
cannot be consistently employed, is in boring the tires 
for locomotive engine wheels and for car wheels. The 
allowance in this case should be just double that given 
above, less the extra allowance of Ym~" m By the first 
rule the allowance for shrinkage for a 6" hole would 
be t At" + tAt" = ttto/) and by the second rule, 
for a 60" tire (internal diameter) the allowance for 
shrinkage would be yo^o" = tA"' The reason 
why such an excessive allowance is made for 
shrinkage for the tires of railroad engines and car 
wheels is that when only the ordinary allowance 
for shrinkage has been made the tires seem to 
work loose on the wheels after being in use for 
a short time, which, is in all probability caused 
by a process which is in effect analogous to " peen- 
ing" produced by the action of the wheels in 
running over the rails, the effect of which at first 
appears to produce a circumferential expansion of the 
tire, and later, as the tire becomes worn, the metal 
seems to solidify somewhat, and the tire is re-contracted 
on the wheel center. 



228 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

By employing the above rule for making allowance 
for shrinkage fits, a good mechanic will find very little 
difficulty in making the necessary measurements on 
the ordinary (machinist's) steel rule, or scale, as it is 
more commonly termed, as nearly every make of these 
rules or scales have one-fourth or one-half of an inch 
(or more) graduated to hundredths, and as in the first 
example given above, where the allowance for shrink- 
age for a 6" hole is T oVo"> * ne allowance in this case 
would be a trifle less than T ^ ;/ ; and by the second 
example the allowance happens in the case cited to 
be exactly yVV'? Du ^ when the diameter of the work 
exceeds 6" it is usual to measure the allowance by 
even hundredths. 

There are many ways of boring the holes in cranks for 
the crank-pin, which should, as already stated, always 
be done after the crank has been fitted and keyed on the 
shaft. Sometimes the hole is bored on the drill-press 
("drilling machine") or on the boring mill (machine), 
and in other cases by means of a special boring 
appliance attached on the crank-shaft or disc. It is 
doubtful however if there are any means by which 
this operation can be performed as accurately, 
economically and expeditiously as on the lathe. 
There are two ways of doing it on the lathe. By 
the first method, the crank is held between the centers 
of the lathe, and the hole is bored by means of the 
boring attachment shown in Figure 124. By the 
second method the work is chucked on the lathe 
carriage, and the hole is bored by means of a boring 
bar, as shown in Figure 183, where A A represents the 
crank held on the V chuck B B, which is bolted to 
the lathe carriage (from which the tool-rest has been 
removed). The crank is shown in position for boring 
the hole C for the crank-pin by means of the boring 
bar D. In setting the crank, when it is desired to 
bore the hole slightly taper with the axis of the shaft 



LATHE WORK. 



229 



for the purpose explained, the crank end of the shaft 
is set as much closer to the boring bar as would equal 
one-half of what the crank runs out of true when 




Fig. 183. 



placed between the lathe centers after it is shrunk 
together, as determined by observation on previous cranks 
of the same class. Or, when the hole is to be bored 
with the work held between the lathe centers, the tail- 
center should be set over (out of line) to a like extent. 
But when the crank-pin is to be pressed in, then the 
axes of the shaft and boring bar should be set parallel 
with each other. When the crank-pin hole has been 
bored, the boss faced off, and the pin turned, the crank 
is ready to be shrunk together. The cranks are to be 
heated around the pin-hole, and then, while still hot, 
they are put together in the V guides, as shown in 
Figures 184 and 185, which represent a plan and end 
view of the crank and V guides. 

In shrinking the cranks together, one crank, which 



230 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



we will suppose to be the one shown at A in Figure 
184, is first placed in position in the V guide B and 
held by means of the cap-plates a a' ; the second crank 
A' should now be placed in a similar position in the V 
guide B', but the cap-plates b b' should not as yet be 
tightened up ; the crank-pin C is first inserted in the 





Fig. 184. 



Fig. 185. 



crank A and then in the crank A' by pushing the 
latter up to the position shown by the dotted lines at 
A". The cranks are then held and adjusted by means 
of the clamps D D' D", which are applied as shown in 
Figure 186, which represents a perspective view of 
the crank only, with the clamps in position thereon. 
As soon as the clamps have been applied and the 
cranks adjusted (set correctly), the cap-plates b b' 
(Figure 184) should be tightened up and the crank 
left to cool off. 

When the crank-discs are turned strictly on the 
interchangeable plan, the operation of adjusting 
(setting) the cranks can be greatly facilitated by inter- 
posing standard distance pieces, such as shown at E E' 
(Figure 186), between the crank-discs. 

The operation of shrinking the cranks together must 
be performed very quickly, in fact in much less time 
than it takes to describe it, otherwise the whole opera- 
tion would result in failure. 



LATHE WORK. 



231 



The heating of the cranks is usually done on a 
special forge in such manner as to heat the metal 
immediately around the pin-hole without heating the 
metal around the shaft. 




Fig. 186. 



When the crank has cooled off, a retaining 
screw is inserted in each crank, drilling and tapping 
the hole for the same, directly on the division line 
of the pin and disc, as shown at c (Figure 186). 
The crank can then be put into the lathe, and when 
the alignment of the pin has been tested, the shafts 
and discs are trued up to size, supporting the weight, 
and steadying the work as much as possible in a 
steady-rest in the usual way. 

To shrink in the pin of a single crank, it is only 
necessary to heat the crank as explained above, and 
then to insert the crank-pin in the hole as quickly as 
possible ; then if the crank-pin is out of line it should 
be riveted (peened) on the back side of the crank-disc 
in such a manner as to draw the pin over in the direc- 
tion required. 

In refitting crank-pins by the shrinking process in 
the driving wheels of locomotives, and also in the 



232 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

cranks of other engines and machines, where it is de- 
sired to fit and shrink the pin in without removing 
the crank from its bearings, it is usual to heat the 
crank by putting red hot irons in the pin-hole until it 
has expanded as much as desired ; the pin is then in- 
serted as quickly as possible. The allowance for 
shrinkage in such cases is about the same as that made 
for a driving fit, the pin being afterwards riveted as an 
additional security. 

In shrinking the parts of other kinds of work to^ 
gether, it is always, when possible, very desirable to 
have locating fixtures in which the parts can be held 
in correct alignment during the shrinking process. 

A crank-pin that is worn or sprung out of true can 
frequently be trued up without removing it from the 
crank, thereby avoiding the expense and trouble of re- 
moving the old pin and . inserting a new one in the 
place thereof. There is no doubt but what this would 
be done much oftener if a simple method for doing 
such work was more generally known. This job can 
be done very readily in any machine shop, either on 
the boring (machine) mill, or on the lathe, the crank- 
pin being set concentric with the axis of the live- 
spindle of the machine or lathe, and the tool revolved 
around the work in the manner shown in Figure 187, 
where the crank A is represented as being held in a 
pair of ordinary V chucking blocks B B', which are 
mounted on the two blocks of wood C C stretched 
across and bolted to the lathe carriage. If a sliding 
tool-post such as D D is available, it should be bolted 
to the face-plate and the tool E adjusted to the cut, as 
shown in an obvious manner in the figure. But in 
case such a tool-post is not available, then the tool 
itself can be bent (offset) in such a manner as to admit 
of its being bolted directly to the face-plate. The tool 
is then adjusted to the cut by tapping it in or out as 
required with a hammer. The latter method is rather 



LATH I : WORK 



233 



a crude way to do a job of this, or any other kind, but 
it is much better than putting a new pin in, or trying 




Fig. 187. 

to true the old pin up by hand filing. The V chuck- 
ing blocks should be correctly set as regards the 
distance and alignment before the crank is placed 
therein or the sliding tool-post is bolted on the face- 
plate, which can be done by placing an arbor or shaft 
of the same diameter as the crank-shaft in the V 
block, and a boring bar or similar shaft in the lathe 
centers, and then measuring or tramming from one 
shaft to the other. 

An arrangement of this kind is also used for 
turning a variety of other work which is too large to 
be swung in the lathe. 






234 



CHAPTER XXV. 

Lathe Work. — Continued. 

BORING AND TURNING CYLINDERS. 

There are a variety of ways for boring and turning 
cylinders of steam engines, pumps, ammonia and air 
compressors, and other machinery employing such 
cylinders for various purposes. The methods em- 
ployed in general practice are always dependent on 
the facilities in the shop for handling such work. 

Cylinders of small diameter are always bored and 
turned in the lathe everywhere. But in shops 
equipped with " modern machinery" the cylinders 
of large diameter are bored and turned on a special 
" cylinder boring and turning machine." In other 
shops, the cylinders are bored and turned on the 
" boring machine." But in most shops the cylinders 
of all diameters and sizes are bored and turned 
altogether on the lathe. In many places the facilities 
for chucking the cylinders are of the very crudest 
character, in fact the idea seems to prevail in such 
cases that anything is good enough for the purpose 
so long as it will hold the work in position for the 
operation, without paying any regard whatever as to 
whether the work is sprung or not by employing such 
methods. The above method usually consists in hold- 
ing the work on wooden blocking roughly hewn out 
to approximate the shape of the cylinder body or 







LATHE WORK. 235 

flanges and extending across the shears or carriage of 

the lathe, the work being bolted thereon, and the bolts 

strained to their utmost capacity. 

The facilities for turning the 

flanges and joints for the cylinder 

heads are always better than the 

boring facilities, as it is almost im- 

Fig. 188. possible to employ anything of a 

crude nature for this purpose. 

The simplest way to chuck the cylinder for turning is 

to insert the old-time centering bar, shown in Figure 

188, in either or both ends of the cylinder in the 

manner shown in Figure 195, and then to chuck the 

work between the lathe centers in the ordinary way. 

Another efficient method employed for holding the 

cylinders for turning is that shown in Figure 189, 



Fiff. 189. 

where the work (cylinder shown in section) W is held 
on the chucking arbor A, which consists of an arbor 
A, a fixed ring A' and an adjustable ring A", 
which are made to fit into the counter-bores of the 
cylinder ; the work is tightened on the chucking rings 
by the jam nut B. The arbor A is used for different 
sizes of cylinders by having rings of different diameters 
to fit thereon. 

In -many cases the flanges and ends of the cylinders 
are turned before the cylinder is bored. The cylinder 
is then bolted to the face-plate, or held in an ordinary 
lathe chuck on the one end, and in a steady-rest on 



236 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



the other end, and sometimes (when made in quanti- 
ties) one end is held in a special chuck, such as shown 
in Figure 190, where A represents the chuck, broken 




Fig. 190. 

away at a to show the manner in which it is fitted 
onto the small face-plate B to which it is held by the 
bolts b (one only shown) ; the chuck is recessed at c to 
receive the flange of the cylinder W which is held in 
position by the clamps d ; the outer end e of the 
cylinder is supported in the steady-rest C. The em- 
ployment of the above chuck obviates the necessity of 
having to set the work, as it is self-centering. The 
cylinder is bored in the ordinary way by a tool held 
in the tool-post. 

Another very efficient method of chucking, not only 
cylinders, but a variety of other work, is shown in 
Figure 191, where the work (cylinder) W is held in 
the hinged chucking rings A A', which are bolted on 
the arms of the lathe carriage. The work is set by 



LATHE WORK. 



237 



means of the adjusting screws a a a and a' a' a', is 
bored by the boring bar E in the usual manner, and 
afterwards turned on the chucking arbor shown in 
Figure 189. 







Tig. 191. 

In most cases the chucking rings A A' are made in 
one piece, but that form is not so handy as the above, 
as it is nearly always necessary, on removing one piece 
and inserting another piece of the work, to loosen all 
the adjusting screws, or else one of the brackets, to get 
the work out and in, thereby requiring as much time to 
set each piece of the work as it did for the first piece, 
which is not the case when the hinged form is 
used. 

Another excellent device employed for the same pur- 
poses as those shown above consists of two V chucking 



238 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



brackets A A, Figure 192, connected and adjusted as to 
length by two or three (as preferred) stay-rods B B' B". 




Fig. 192. 

The V brackets are bolted on the arms of the lathe 
carriage. The work (cylinder) W is set by means of the 
adjusting screws a a' and then held by the clamp-plates 
and bolts bb r . When larger cylinders are to be chucked, 
the adjusting screws a a' are changed to the holes 
a" a r// . In some respects this device is superior to any 
of the others, inasmuch as it admits of the work being 
chucked in such manner as to leave the ends of the 
work free to be operated on (turned) without having 
to re-chuck it. The boring is done with a boring bar, 
and the turning by means of a sliding tool-post, such 
as shown in Figure 72. The work is fed up to the cut 
by the regular carriage feed. 



LATHE WORK. 239 

In some types of engines the cylinder, frame and 
guides are cast in one piece, one instance of which is 
shown in Figure 75, and another in Figure 95. It is 
very seldom that the cylinders and guides are bored 
elsewhere than on the lathe, even in shops equipped 
with "boring machines," as the work can be handled 
to better advantage on the lathe. When the size of 
the work will admit of it, the work is swung or re- 
volved in the lathe, and the cutting done by fixed 
tools in the same manner as on other work. But 
when the work is too large to be swung in the lathe, 
then it is chucked partly on the lathe carriage and 
partly on an auxiliary rest or carriage and the cutting 
done by revolving cutters in the ordinary way. 

Figure 193 shows the manner in which the work is 
chucked and driven when revolved in the lathe. In 
the figure the work represents the vertical engine 
frame shown in Figure 75. Before the work is 
chucked for boring, it is first centered and then chucked 
between the lathe centers to face off (true up) the base, 
a centering bar X shown in Figure 194 (which repre- 
sents a perspective view of the base only chucked on 
the lathe center 0) being cast in the base for this pur- 
pose, and afterwards broken off. The cylinder end is 
chucked in a similar manner by means of the center- 
ing bar a (shown in Figure 188), as shown in Figure 
195 (which represents the cylinder only chucked on 
the center o'). When the base has been faced off the 
flange V is trued up to furnish a bearing for the work 
in the steady-rest. As shown in Figure 193, the work 
is supported on the one end by bolting the base to the 
face-plate, and on the other end in the steady-rest. 
The boring bar A A is supported and held on one end 
in the tail-spindle E, and on the other end in a guide 
bracket B, which is held on the face-plate. In order 
to take up the lost motion, and to prevent the contin- 
ual jarring and jumping of the work as the cutting 






240 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 




LATHE WORK. 



241 



tools come in contact with and are released from the 
guides, it is usual to turn the flange D simultaneously 
with the boring of the guides, using a very fine feed 
to prolong the turning operation as much as possible, 
the turning tool G, which is shown in position for 
the operation, being fed by means of the regular car- 
riage feed. When the opening in the base of the 
frame will admit of it, the guide bracket B is located 
on the inside of the frame, and is made with two arms 
instead of one. But when employed as shown, the 
position of the work should be reversed to bring the 





Fig. 194. 



Fig. 195. 



steam-chest on the opposite side to the bracket, in 
order that the weight of one will counter-balance the 
weight of the other. 

In all operations of this kind, the importance and 
necessity of having an automatic feed on the tail- 
spindle will readily be seen, as it is necessary for the 
operator to give his whole attention to the cutters and 
work, without having to become a part of the machine 
itself (as it were), by performing a part of the work 
which can always be done more efficiently and ex- 
peditiously by the machine. 

When the work is too large to be swung in the 
lathe, as in boring and turning the cylinder and 
guides of the vertical engine frame shown in Figure 
95, the work is chucked on the lathe in such manner 



242 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

as will admit of its being operated on to the best ad- 
vantage with the facilities provided for that purpose. 
If the lathe is provided with a boring bar having a 
sliding (traversing) cutter-head thereon, the work can 
be chucked stationary either on the lathe shears or 
carriage, or both ; but when the lathe is only provided 
with an ordinary boring bar, the work must be chucked 
in such manner as will admit of its being fed up to 
the cutters, as the cutters cannot be fed through the 
work. 

Figure 196 shows the manner in which the vertical 
engine frame (mentioned above) is chucked on the 
lathe for boring the cylinder and guides and the tempor- 
ary guide bar C. In the figure, W represents the work, 
held by the lower flange f of the cylinder in the 
chucking ring B, and by the feet of the standards on 
the auxiliary chucking-rest F F', which is connected 
with the lathe carriage by the reach-rods D D. The 
work is set on the cylinder end in the ring B in the 
ordinary way, and on the foot end on the auxiliary 
slide F F' by means of the adjusting screws b b b b, and 
is held thereon by the bolts and strap a. The hole 
in the guide bar C is bored first by means of a smaller 
boring bar. 

The frame is broken away to show the interior. 



LATHE WORK. 



243 




244 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

Lathe Work. — Continued. 

TURNING AND BORING TAPERS. 

The accuracy with which taper work can be turned 
and bored depends almost entirely on the facilities for 
doing such work. If the facilities are incomplete the 
job may be very difficult of accomplishment, but with 
the proper facilities, taper work can be turned and 
bored with the same facility as parallel work. On the 
American built lathes there are three methods by 
which taper turning can be accomplished and two 
methods of boring taper holes. The first and almost 
universal method employed for taper turning is by 
setting the tail-stock of the lathe over in such manner 
as to throw the tail-center out of line with the live- 
center, so that, though the turning tool is traversed 
parallel with the lathe-shears and live-spindle, the 
work is turned to the taper required. 

The second method is by employing a taper-turning 
former attachment (known as the " Sellers taper-turn- 
ing attachment"). This is the favorite and really the 
most practical of any. 

The third method is by using a compound (auxil- 
iary) slide rest. 

For boring taper work the second and third 
methods (given above for taper turning) are the only 
ones employed in general practice. 

In England and other European countries the 
head-stock of the lathes are adjustable on the lathe 
bed as well as the tail-stock, a very desirable feature 
(not possessed by the American built lathes), which 



LATHE WORK. 245 

admits of the head-stock being set over (out of line 
with the lathe-shears) whenever it is desired to bore 
taper holes. This method is employed almost to the 
exclusion of any other method when boring taper 
work in England. Another method w T hich is also 
used to some extent for the same purpose is by means 
of the auxiliary slide rest, as already explained, the 
Sellers taper-turning attachment being very little 
used in the European countries. 

For turning tapers the methods employed in the 
above countries are, first, by setting the head and tail 
stock of the lathe in line with each other, but out of 
line with the lathe-shears to the angle required ; 
secondly, by setting either the head-stock or tail-stock 
over to the angle required in a similar manner, and 
thirdly, by means of the auxiliary slide rest. On 
short tapers this latter method is preferred to any other. 

In all cases when the lathe is provided with a taper 
turning and boring attachment, the tapers are turned 
and bored altogether by that means. 

Many lathes are provided with both the latter 
facilities, and when so arranged, the tapers are turned 
and bored by means of the taper-turning attachment, 
and the tool is adjusted by means of the auxiliary 
slide rest. 

By the ordinary rules the calculations for setting 
the lathe to turn taper are made as follows : When 
the work is to be turned taper the whole of its length, 
the tail-stock, auxiliary slide rest or taper-turning 
attachment are set out of line with the lathe-shears to 
an amount which equals one-half of the taper to be 
given the w T ork. And in like manner when boring 
taper holes, the head-stock (when it is adjustable), 
auxiliary slide rest or taper-turning attachment are 
set out of line to the same extent but in the opposite 
direction. 

When the work is to be tapered a part of its length 






246 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



only, it is usual to calculate the ratio of the taper per 
foot for the whole length of the work. As for 
example, in turning the taper-shank a of the piston 
rod A, Figure 197, we must first reduce the length 



a 




Fig. 197. 

of the rod to inches, then divide that by the number 
of inches to be tapered, and multiply the quotient by 
the amount the work is to be tapered. 

In this case the length of the work is 30" over 
all ; the part to be tapered is 4" long, and the 
amount of taper T y in 4'^ = T y per foot, or -^" 
per inch, which for the wriole length of the work 
would equal |J", and one-half of this, or \^", equals 
the amount the tail-stock or other taper-turning 
appliances should be set over to turn the taper re- 
quired. 

To be strictly correct, the distance which the lathe 
centers enter each end of the work should be deducted 
from its length in computing the amount to which 
the tail-stock should be set over, but this does not 
effect the calculation when the taper-turning attach- 
ment or auxiliary slide rest are employed for this 
purpose. And in fact it is very seldom that any such 
allowance for the same is made, even when the tail- 
stock is used. 

The most accurate and expeditious method of setting 
the lathe for boring or turning tapers is by means of 
a " bevel-gauge " (usually termed in the workshop 
" bevel square "), which is applied as shown in Figures 
198 to 201. 



LATHE WORK. 



247 



The amount of taper being known, the bevel-gauge 
can be set to the correct angle for the taper required, 
by the method shown in Figure 198, which consists 




Fig. 198. 

in making two perpendicular lines a b at right angles 
to the parallel edge C of the plate A, said lines to be 
one-half the distance apart of the taper to be given the 
work. The length of the taper is then laid off on the 
line a, as shown at c, and the bevel-gauge B B' is set 
to the correct angle in the manner shown at a' b' c'. 




Fig. 199. 

Or, when the job consists in making a new piston rod 
to replace the old one, the operation can be still 
further simplified by placing the old-rod A in the 



248 



THE MODEEN MACHINIST. 



lathe centers d d', with the taper end a of the rod on 
the live-center d, as shown in Figure 199, and then 
adjusting the gauge B B' in the manner shown therein, 
placing a parallel P between the face-plate C and the 
stock B' of the bevel-gauge, to admit of the gauge 
being set to the angle required without coming in 
contact with the center. The new-rod A is then 
placed in the centers d d', and the center d' (tail-stock) 
is set over until the rod stands at the angle desired, as 
shown in Figure 200. The rod is then in the right 




Fig. 200. 



position for turning the correct taper on the dead- 
center end d' in the usual manner. Or, if the taper is 
to be turned by means of the auxiliary slide rest, the 
auxiliary slide rest is set to the angle required in pre- 
cisely the same way, as shown in Figure 201, where, 
after the bevel-gauge has been set to the right taper 
by either of the above methods, the stock W of the 
gauge is held against the face-plate C or parallel P, 
and the rest D is set to the same angle as the gauge. 
In setting the work by the method shown in Figure 
200, the length of the work, or the distance the lathe 
centers enter into the same, has nothing whatever to 



LATHE WORK. 



249 



do with the accuracy with which the work can be set, 
and there is no doubt but what it is the most correct 
of any method known for setting the head-stock and 
tail-stock or compound slide rest for turning or boring 
tapers. 




Fig. 201. 

When the Sellers taper-turning attachment is em- 
ployed, it can be set to turn or bore any taper required 
very readily, as it is graduated for that- purpose. 

Other methods of turning and boring tapers which 
are known to the author are not given, because they 
are not employed to any extent in general practice. 

A very simple taper turning and boring attach- 
ment, which can be made and applied to any lathe, is 
shown in Figure 202. This device consists of a 
parallel former guide bar A, slotted in the center of its 
length to receive the roller D on the end of the arm 
C, which extends from the tool-rest E. The guide 
bar A is mounted on the brackets B B r , which are 
fixed on the head-stock and tail-stock respectively, as 
yhown, and which are each provided with a slot by 
means of which the guide bar can be adjusted to the 
angle required. When turning taper work, the guide 
bar is pivoted on the bracket B, and is adjusted to the 
angle required on the bracket B'. But when boring taper 
holes, the guide bar is pivoted on the bracket B', and 
adjusted on the bracket B (which is shown broken away). 



j, 



250 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



The foregoing device is particularly adapted to 
lathes which have no adjustment of the head or tail 
stock, and are not provided with a compound slide rest 




Fig. 202. 

As the feed-screw of the cross-slide is always dis- 
connected when a taper or former turning attachment 
is being used on lathes of this description, some means 
must be provided for adjusting the tool to the cut, or 
the adjustment must be made 
with a hammer. Figure 203 
shows the method adopted by 
the author for making the 
necessary adjustment of the tool 
to the cut in cases of this kind. 
As shown therein, the device 
consists in making the base ring 
A of the tool-post T with an ex- 
tension on the front, in the form 
of a lug B, which is threaded to 
receive the adjusting screw C, and the tool is adjusted 
in an obvious manner thereby. 




Fig, 203, 



LATHE WORK. 251 

This device is practically equivalent to a compound 
slide rest so far as its application to the adjustment of 
the tool to the cut is concerned, and its use admits of 
the ordinary lathe being employed for former turning 
with the same facility as the compound lathe. 



252 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

Lathe Work. — Continued. 

EXAMPLES OP FORMER TURNING, ETC. 

The necessity of turning irregular forms of work 
seldom occurs in general practice, as irregular forms 
are always (whenever possible) studiously avoided in 
the designing of all kinds of modern machinery, but 
when such forms are employed at all, it is usually for 
cams and cam-motions, and the work is machined on 
a special cam-cutting or milling machine, or it is done 
on a " former-lathe." 

* "The method by which former turning is usually 
accomplished on the ordinary lathe is by means of an 
arrangement in which a former of the desired shape 
is operated on a spindle attached to the back of the 
lathe, and which is made to revolve in unison with 
the live-spindle and work by gearing from the live- 
spindle to the former-spindle. A tracer-arm or pointer 
is extended from the tool-rest to the cam, and is kept 
in constant contact with the cam by means of a 
weight, the device being operated in such a manner 
as to cause the turning or boring tool to advance to or 
recede from the work as the former and work are 
revolved, thereby turning the surface of the work the 
same shape as the former cam." 

While a knowledge of the methods employed in 
former turning may not be absolutely necessary to the 
lathe-hand or machinist in general practice, still, as it 
does occasionally happen that irregular forms are, 
for specific reasons, employed in machine construction, 

* "Modem Machine-Shop Practice," Vol. I., Chap, XIII., p. 326, 



LATHE WORK. 



253 



a knowledge of such processes is very essential when 
such instances do occur. 

In a certain engine works in England it was 
decided to employ a valve-rod slide for operating the 
valves — of elliptic or oval section. Instead of using the 
revolving former and tracer-arm (mentioned above) 
for turning these slides, the method employed for 
actuating the cross-slide rest and tool was that shown 
in Figure 204. As shown therein, the method and 







Wig. 204. 

device consist in employing an eccentric A on the 
back of the face-plate B to actuate the rock-shaft C in 
such manner as to impart a reciprocating motion to 
the cross-slide (tool-rest) D, causing the tool E to ad- 
vance to and recede from the work W (which is 
broken away to show the form and method to better 
advantage). 

The difference between the greater and lesser 
diameters of the ellipse is regulated, first, by varying 



. 



254 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

the throw of the eccentric A, and secondly, by varying 
the length of the rocker-arms a and b. In this case 
the rocker-arm a is twice as long as the arm b, and 
consequently the throw of the eccentric A is just twice 
as much as would be required to produce an ellipse of 
the diameters shown in the engraving, if the rocker- 
arms a and b were of equal length. 

While the difference in the two diameters of the 
ellipse is regulated by varying the throw of the eccen- 
tric and the length of the rocker-arms, the work is 
turned to size, by adjusting the tool to the cut in the 
ordinary way. 

The boxes (bearings) for the slides are bored elliptic 
to fit the slide by means of the same device, chucking 
and boring the work in the same manner as in boring 
circular holes. 

Excellent work can be done by means of this device, 
but there is one peculiar feature about turning and 
boring with it which it is well to mention to avoid 
inaccuracies. This peculiarity refers to a slight 
indented ridge formed on the work (the whole of its 
length) exactly at the point where the tool E is shown 
in contact in the engraving ; this occurs whenever the 
tool comes to rest, as the eccentric is passing the 
" dead-centers " at the two extremes of its throw. 

The occurrence of these ridges on the work is not 
confined to this particular kind of former-turning at- 
tachment, but pertains in like manner to all kinds of 
former-turning appliances where the tool and all the 
parts come to rest at certain points of the revolution 
of the work and former. The ridges thus formed are 
almost imperceptible on the work, but at the same 
time are sufficiently large to interfere with the 
accuracy of the fits, and have to be removed from the 
slide by "draw-filing," and from the boxes by 
" scraping." 

The next example of turning formed work shows 



LATHE WORK. 



.);) 



the method employed for turning what is termed a 
"cam-shaft." It is turned out of square "stock," and 
is employed for operating a series of rams on a rivet- 
ing machine, instead of using a separate cam for each 
ram. 

As shown in Figure 205, the device is in part the 




Fig. 208. 

same as that shown in Figure 204, but the means 
employed for operating the rock-shaft C and its 
appurtenances are modified to make it applicable to the 
work. In this case the rock-shaft, etc., are actuated 
from a tracer-arm F, which is pivoted at c in the 
saddle-block G, and is connected with the rocker-arm 
a by means of the connecting-rod d. The tracer F is 
held in constant contact with the former A (which is 
fixed on the back of the face-plate B, concentric with 
the axis of the same) by means of the weight E. 
Provision is made for adjusting the tracer-arm F 
vertically, by making the pivot-block f adjustable in 
the T slot g of the saddle-block G. This adjustment 



256 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



is necessary when formers of different sizes or formers 
for other classes of work are employed. 

The accuracy of the work turned by this method 
will depend in a great measure on the accuracy with 
which the parts of the device are fitted together, and 
care must be observed to see that there is no lost 
motion in any of the joints and connections. 




Fig. 206. 

The object in arranging the former turning device 
in this manner is, first, to avoid the inconvenience 
occasioned by fixing the operating mechanism on the 
front part of the lathe, and secondly, to arrange the 
whole mechanism in such a manner as not to interfere 
with the ordinary functions of the lathe further than 
having to disengage the feed screw of the cross-slide, 
and thirdly, that irregular work of any diameter and 
almost any shape can be turned by means of the same 
device. 

The former should be made of good hard cast iron 
or of sheet steel, and should be of such width as will 






LATH 10 WORK. 257 

furnish ample bearing for the tracer. To turn formed 
work of small diameter it will be necessary to make 
the former on an enlarged scale, and to reduce the 
motion of the cross-slide rest and tool by varying the 
length of the rocker-arms in proportion. But when 
turning cams and similar work, when the diameter will 
admit of it, the former should be made of the same 
size and shape as the work to be turned. 

Figure 206 shows how cams are chucked and turned 
by means of the same device. In setting the former 
and work for turning the outer surface of the 
work, it is arranged to conform its greatest diam- 
eter within the limits of a true circle, and both 
the w T ork and former are set within the limits of this 
the given circle, concentric with the axis of the live- 
spindle, in precisely the same manner as an eccentric 
would be chucked for turning. This will be better 
understood by referring to Figure 
207, which represents a front view 
of the cam W held on the chucking 
arbor in position for the operation, 
the former being fixed in the same 
relative position, but on the back 
side of the chuck, the dotted lines 
representing the circle within the 
bounds of which the work and Fifft % 07% 

former are set,. O representing the 
common axis of the cam (and also that of the live- 
spindle) ; the hub h is bored eccentric to the same for 
apparent reasons. 

In setting work for boring by the same process, the 
internal surface is arranged and set in precisely the 
same manner as for turning, and the boring is done 
in the same way as though boring circular holes. 

As the diameter of the cam (work), shown in 
Figures 206 and 207, admits of the employment of a 
former of the same size as the cam itself, the rocker- 




258 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



arms are made of equal length, and the connection 
from the arm b to the cross-slide rest is made more 
direct with the tool. 

This method admits of cams and other irregular 
shaped work being turned with the same facility as 
eccentrics are turned, the only difference being that 
the turning tool must be relieved (backed off) on the 
under side to clear the work at every part of its circum- 
ference during the operation. 

In place of having a fixed point on the tracer-arm 
F (Figure 205), a small roller can be employed if 
desired, but as the roller wears very rapidly, and af- 
fects the accuracy of the work to some extent, a solid 
pointer is to be preferred for this purpose. 

These examples of turning irregular shaped work 
do not represent anything of an extraordinary nature, 
but are introduced herein to show how the ordinary 
facilities have been and may be improved upon to do 
work which would otherwise have to be done on a 
special forming lathe or machine. 



259 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 
Lathe Work. — Continued. 

BORING AND TURNING BUSHINGS, HOLLOW SPINDLE- 
LATHES, GANG LATHES. 

The question as to how bushings are chucked when 
made in quantities for boring and turning is frequently 
asked in the trade journals, and as the methods pro- 
posed in answer to the queries do not seem to accord 
with those employed in modern practice for doing 
such work in some of the large agricultural works, 
where such bushings are made and used in larger 
quantities than elsewhere, it is thought advisable to 
show them here. 

These bushings are used very extensively in the 
construction of agricultural machinery and are usually 
made of composition or brass. Two forms are used, 
namely, split and solid bushings, and either or both 
forms are made straight or tapering on their outer 
diameter to suit the requirements in the construction 
of the machine. The split bushings are usually the 
most difficult to handle, but with the proper facilities 
and manipulation the difference is scarcely preceptible 
in operating on either form. 





Fig. 208. 

When the bushings are of the split form, as shown 
in Figure 208, the joint surfaces a a' are first ground 
or milled parallel. The two halves A A' are then 
placed together, as shown in Figure 209. The next 



260 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 




operation consists in facing off the ends and making 
the bushing of the length desired. This is done by 
clamping the two halves A A' of the bushing on the 
mandrel B (tne upper half A of the bushing being 
broken away to show the form of the mandrel), as 
shown in Figure 210, holding 
them firmly in position for the 
operation by means of the 
screw-clamp C. As shown in 
the figure, the mandrel B is 
made to be run between the 
centers, but when preferred, it 
is arranged in the form of an 
arbor-chuck and is fixed on the 
nose of the live-spindle, or in the socket for the live- 
center. The bushings can now be either bored or 
turned as preferred, the manner of chucking being the 
same whether either operation has been first performed 
or not. To turn the outer diameter the bushings are 
chucked, as shown in Figure 211, on a special chucking 
arbor B, the work A A r being held tightly against the 
shoulder a by the nut C ; the collar B' of the arbor B 
and the nut C (at b) are reduced in diameter to avoid 
any interference with the operation of the turning 
tool. 



Fig. 210. 




Fig. 211. 



When the bushings have been turned to size, they 
are held for boring in a chuck such as shown in 
Figure 212 (the chuck C C and work A A' being 
shown partly in section). The chuck C consists of a 



LATHE WORK. 



261 



hollow sleeve, bored and threaded at a to fit on the 
nose of the live-spindle B ; it is also threaded on the 
outside at b for the jam-nut C The chuck is cham- 
bered out at c to provide clearance for the boring tools 
as they pass through the work. 




Another form of chuck employed for holding the 
work while it is being bored and faced on the ends 
is shown in Figure 213. This chuck is of the well- 
known collapsing form, and is similar in construction 
to that shown in Figure 212, except that it is tapered 
at b, and the sleeve d has three radial slits e e e, which 
admit of the jaws being closed as the binding nut C 
is tightened up. 




Fig. 213. 



This latter form of chuck is employed more for 
holding solid bushings than for those that are split, 







262 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



principally with a view to providing a means for 
facing off the ends at the same time that they are 
bored. 

In other cases this is accomplished by holding the 
work on an expanding mandrel, by which means the 
bushings can be faced off on the ends and turned on 
the outside at the same chucking. An arrangement 
of this kind is almost a necessity when the bushings 
are of the tapered form, as it would be rather difficult 
to face off the ends by other methods. This form of 
chuck is shown in Figure 214, A A' representing the 




chuck, B a taper plug, by means of which the jaws 
a a' are expanded to hold the work (taper bushing) 

The construction of all these chucks can be modified 
considerably on a lathe provided with a hollow live- 
spindle, as the chucks can be arranged to handle the 
work more rapidly, and the different processes facili- 
tated throughout. 

LATHES WITH HOLLOW LIVE-SPINDLES. 

Every machine shop should be provided with at 
least one lathe having a hollow live-spindle, for it can 
be utilized for such a variety of purposes that its value 
can scarcely be overestimated. In fact, if but one- 
half of the purposes to which it can be applied were 



LATHE WORK. 263 

better understood, there is not the least doubt but 
what a large percentage of the solid spindle-lathes 
would be supplanted by the hollow spindle-lathe, but 
unfortunately the advantages of such lathes are so 
little understood in many shops that the hollow 
spindle is actually regarded as an undesirable and 
unnecessary feature. And in other cases the merits of 
such lathes are so poorly appreciated that little or no 
use is made of their capabilities. And then again, on the 
other hand, in many shops every possible use is made 
of the advantages such a lathe offers, and it is here, 
and here only, that we can see the possibilities and 
best examples of what can be accomplished on such a 
lathe over the ordinary solid spindle-lathe. And here 
again we get an insight as to what constitutes 
" Modern Machine-Shop Practice." 

GANG LATHES. SETTING TWO LATHES SO AS TO HANDLE 

EXTRA LONG WORK THEREIN. 

Every machine shop, large or small, making special- 
ties, or doing a general business, should provide a 
means for handling extra long work, as such a con- 
tingency is sure to occur at some time or other. 
Usually such a contingency is provided for by having 
at least one lathe in the shop with a bed from twenty 
to thirty feet in length, but under ordinary circum- 
stances such a lathe is an incumbrance in the shop, as 
it can only be used on short work the greater part of 
the time, unless an arrangement is made by which a 
" gang " (series) of lathe-heads can be set and operated 
on the same bed, and employed exclusively for doing 
chucked work, or for turning short work. To arrange 
the lathe for this class of work, it should be fitted with 
as many head-stocks and carriages (in series) as can 
be conveniently operated on the lathe bed. On 
ordinary work, when employed for chucking purposes 



264 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

only, a head-stock and carriage should not occupy a 
space of more than five feet, and as each carriage is 
provided with a separate feed-rod and gearing for 
operating the same, a thirty-foot bed would contain a 
gang of six independent head-stocks and carriages, thus 
making it equivalent to six lathes. The author has 
seen a lathe with a bed fifty feet in length arranged 
in this manner for doing chucked work, with nine 
head-stocks and one tail-stock and nine carriages, every 
other head-stock in the series being left-handed, so 
that the two face-plates face each other, making it 
possible and convenient for one operator to run two 
lathes, the last lathe in the series being employed for 
turning. Occasionally this lathe was employed for 
turning extra long work, such as facing and turning 
long cast-iron columns, and at times thirty or forty 
foot lengths of shafting. The intermediate head- 
stocks were then removed, but all the carriages were 
operated simultaneously by means of one common 
feed-rod. 

Independently of the lathe being applicable to the 
purpose of boring and turning work of extra length, 
it was the greatest economizer of space we have ever 
seen as far as its adaptation and employment for gang 
lathes is concerned. We have frequently seen two 
head-stocks and two tail-stocks operated on the same 
lathe bed, and it would seem as though there must 
be some gain in the employment of this method, or it 
would not be employed by intelligent and wide-awake 
managers and manufacturers, and therefore it seems as 
though the same plan could be used to advantage in 
many other cases. 

Another plan for handling work of extra length 
that is frequently resorted to is to set two lathes end 
to end in such manner that their centers will be 
coincident with each other. Then by removing the 
head-stock of one lathe and the tail-stock of the 



LATHE WORK. 265 

other the work can be placed between the centers as 
though it were one lathe. The carriage of the lathe 
from which the head-stock has been removed is fed 
along the cut by connecting it with the carriage of the 
other lathe by means of a chain, or, if preferred, the 
work can be changed end for end, and operated on in 
that manner. 

In setting the centers of two lathes in line with 
each other, as explained above, the lathes need not 
necessarily be of the same size. 

In modern practice the capacity of boring and other 
machines is frequently increased by setting the 
machines in such positions that when the work is too 
large to be handled to advantage on one machine the 
second machine is brought into requisition, admitting 
of work being operated on which would otherwise re- 
quire a larger machine, or have to be done by other 
and more expensive processes. 



266 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

Lathe Work. — Continued. 

CIRCULAR CUTTERS. 

The employment of circular cutters for turning 
purposes is always confined in general practice to 
turning what is termed " formed work," and when so 
employed the tool is advanced to the cut from the 
outer diameter of the work towards its center or axis, 
thereby turning (forming) the work to the exact shape 
of the cutter, except in those cases where a circular 
cutter is employed for turning small fillets and round- 
ing the corners off on work, or is used as a cutting-ofF 
tool. 

In the first case, when circular cutters are employed 
for turning " formed work " in the lathe, the cutter is 
termed a " shape tool," but in the other cases they are 
simply termed "cutting-off" tools, "fillet" tools, etc., 
the same as any other tool employed for the same 
purpose. 

Circular cutters have been employed for the above 
purposes for many years, but the application of such 
cutters to the purpose of taking traversing cuts on 
work in the lathe is (as far as we have been able to 
ascertain) of very recent date, but the success which 
has followed their employment has been very gratify- 
ing and satisfactory. 

For ordinary turning purposes two kinds of these 
cutters can be used, namely : those that are turned 
circular, and those that are "backed-off " or relieved in the 
same manner as milling cutters are relieved. When 
the relieved form of cutter is employed, it is 
held on a plain vertical tool-holder; but when the 



LATHE WORK. 267 

unrelieved form of cutter is employed, it is held on an 
inclined tool-holder, the inclination of which corre- 
sponds to the amount of clearance required to be given 
the cutter. In either case the cutting points of the 
tools are made to correspond in shape to the ordinary 
turning tools employed for the same purpose. When 
the cutters are of large diameter they can be cut out 
to form either three or four teeth or cutting edges as 
desired, but when the cutters are of small diameter 
three divisions or teeth are usually sufficient. 

The principles governing the construction and 
operation of circular cutters are precisely the same as 
those w T hich are applied to all other forms of turning 
tools, as far as the shape of the cutting edges, clearance 
angles and the position in which the tool has to be set 
is concerned. 

Figure 215 represents a circular turning tool of the 
unrelieved form. The circular cutter A is held on the 
inclined tool-holder B by 
means of the binding screw C. 
In this case the cutter has 
three divisions or teeth, and is 
inclined in an obvious manner, 

to give the necessary clearance \^4. ^JM^^^^ 
to the cutting edge. If the 
cutter was held by the binding 
screw (or pivot) C alone, it 
would be necessary to serrate 
or notch the cutter on the side 

next to the tool-holder B, to prevent the cutter from 
turning on its pivot when applied to the cut ; but as 
shown therein, the tendency of the cutter to turn on 
its pivot is avoided by placing an adjusting screw D 
on the under side of the tool-holder in such manner 
as to take the greater part of the strain off the pivot 
pin, and also to provide a means for retaining and 
adjusting the cutting edge of the tool to the height 




268 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

required. The advantages of circular tools consist in 
there being three or more cutting points, any one ol 
which may be used as desired, and in the same clear- 
ance angles being retained as long as the cutter is 
used, regardless of how much it may be ground, as 
the grinding is only done on the top surfaces of the 
cutting edges. When it is desired to change from one 
cutting edge of the tool to another, the adjusting 
screw D is simply backed out of the way and the 
cutter is rotated until the point desired is in position. 

Circular tools having a single cutting point have 
been employed for many years for thread cutting 
(turning), but as their employment does not appear to 
have been any more (if as) satisfactory than the 
ordinary single point solid threading tool, they have 
not been very extensively adopted. This appears to 
be due to the fact that the clearance angles of a true 
circular cutter are too obtuse for thread cutting, as 
they cause too much abrasion on the sides of the 
thread they are cutting, and hence an excessive wear 
on the cutting edges. But when the cutting edges 
are backed off or relieved for the clearance angles 
in the manner that milling cutters are relieved, 
then this abrasion does not occur, as the clearance 
angles can be made as acute as desired, the principles 
being precisely the same as those observed in making 
taps and dies. 

Circular cutters backed-off (relieved) in the above 
manner are superior to any other form either for 
thread cutting or for ordinary turning purposes. 

A single point circular threading tool may be made 
in the form of a disc with the edges converging (at 
the angles desired) to a point. Or it may be made in 
the form of a disc with a single thread cut on its 
periphery. If made in the latter form the thread 
should be cut left-handed for cutting a right-handed 
thread, and vice versa for cutting a left-handed thread. 



LATHE WORK. 



269 




Or if the cutter is turned right-handed, and is to be 
used for cutting a right-handed thread, it will have to 
be inclined and the upper surface of the cutting edge 
ground off to give the necessary clearance angles. 
This will be better understood by referring to the 
circular threading tool shown in Figure 216, which 
was made and used by Mr. A. Crocker. In this case 
the cutter A was made 
from the body of a tap, 
the threads being in- 
clined, and the upper 
surface a ground off for 
clearance. This makes a 
very efficient threading 
tool, is said to give 
superior results and to 
last for an almost in- 
definite period. If the 
body of a left-handed tap is employed in the same 
manner, it does not have to be inclined, or have the 
upper surface of the threads ground off for clearance, 
as this is already provided for if the tap has been 
made by the regulation methods, as already explained. 
The action of a threading tool of this kind is similar 
to that of a chaser, which, it is claimed, produces a 
more perfect thread than can be made with a single 
point (solid) tool. 

Chaser-tools are frequently employed for threading 
taps and other work for the above reasons, but person- 
ally, from our own experience in this respect, we are 
inclined to favor the finishing of all threaded work 
that requires to be made to exact standard sizes by 
means of a "sizer-tap" or "die," after the work has 
been threaded in the ordinary way. 



Fig. 216. 



When box-tools are used on the ordinary lathe they 



_ 



270 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

are always held and centered in the tail-spindle. This 
is an excellent means of using such an appliance, but 
the benefit to be derived from its use is frequently 
curtailed by making the shank taper, to fit into the 
socket of the tail-spindle instead of making a hub and 
fitting it on the outside of the spindle, thereby making 
it more rigid and much more capable of fulfilling the 
purpose for which it is intended. 

A box-tool fitted in this manner will usually give 
very satisfactory results, if properly constructed ; and 
incase the work requires some subsequent operation to 
be performed thereon, before it is cut from the bar, it 
leaves the lathe carriage and tool-rest at liberty for 
this purpose. It not infrequently happens though 
that the box-tool may be arranged in such a manner 
that all the operations can be performed either simul- 
taneously or in succession by the box-tool itself. It is 
hardly to be expected though that if the box-tool is 
held on the tail-spindle the best obtainable results can 
be secured, for the support offered by the tail-spindle 
is not sufficient for handling heavy cuts, or, what 
amounts to the same thing, several lighter cuts simul- 
taneously. Then again the provisions for feeding the 
tools to the cut are seldom as adequate as they should 
be, and hence it seems somewhat strange that the 
tail-spindle should be selected for this 1 , purpose at all, 
while the lathe carriage, which is better adapted, and 
is intended for this purpose, is allowed to stand idle. 
In general practice, though, the employment of box- 
tools is usually confined to " turret-lathes/' and are 
used almost entirely on work of very small diameter, 
the subsequent operations (if any) on the work being 
performed by means of other tools held in the other 
sockets of the "turret-head." This is one of the 
principal advantages possessed by the "turret-lathe" 
over the ordinary lathe, but with tools properly de- 
signed and constructed it is very seldom but what the 



LATHE WORK. 



271 



work can be done equally as well on the ordinary- 
lathe as on the " turret-lathe." 

The most recent improvements in box-tools consist 
in the substitution of " circular cutters" for " plain 
cutters," the adaptation of the box (tool-holder) to 
the tool-rest of the lathe instead of fitting it on the 
tail-spindle or in the " turret-head," and in arranging the 
box in such a manner that other tools may be readily 
attached thereto, for completing the subsequent opera- 
tions on the work when such are required, which is 
very clearly exemplified in the following engravings, 
Figures 218 to 221 (inclusive). 







Fig. 217. 



Fig. 218. 



Figure 217 represents the work (which is what is 
termed a " countersunk-headed bolt ") to be turned, 
threaded and cut off at three operations. 

Figure 218 represents a plan view (partly in 
section), Figure 219 an end elevation, and Figure 220 



272 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



a front view in perspective of the box-tool, with the 
cutters in position as the work is being turned. 

In construction, the box is similar to the boxes for 
holding plain cutters of the ordinary type. The body 
A (similar reference letters denoting the same parts in 
all the figures) is made of cast iron and is fitted by 
means of a tongue a (shown in Figures 219 and 220) 
in the T slot of the tool-rest B B, in which it is held 
by the bolts b b b ; the work W is steadied in the 
bushings C C. In turning the bolt, the first cut is 
started by the advance lip c of the cutter D, which re- 




Fig. 219. 

duces the work to the size of the outer diameter of the 
bolt head. The second lip e of the same cutter turns 
the body to size, and bevels the head to the angle re- 
quired. The cutter E reduces the bolt on the end 
ready for threading, and also regulates the length of 
the body. The cutter F turns off the end, and 
determines the length of the threaded portion. The 
cutters are then backed-off from the work, and the end 
threaded by means of the die shown in Figure 221, 
the die-holder being located and held in the box by 



LATHE WORK. 



273 



means of the shanks G and H, the shank G fitting into 
the bushings C C, and the shank H into the socket I 
(Figure 219). In this case the bolt is threaded at a 




JFig. 220. 



single cut, the lathe being reversed as the die 
reaches the shoulder of the work. The work is then 
cut off by means of the parting tool G (Figure 219) 




Fig. 221, 



which is operated by the hand lever H. The cutters 
are adjusted (in the manner shown in Figure 215) by 
means of the adjusting screws f f £ 






274 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

Essentially, in employing circular cutters in this 
manner, their diameters must be very exact, as the 
diameters of the cutters determine the diameters of 
the work, no adjustment of the cutters for this purpose 
being possible, as the pivot pins of the cutters are, 
practically speaking — fixtures. Obviously as the 
cutters become worn or dulled, the adjusting screw 
can be backed out of the way, and another tooth or 
point can be brought into position ; and any or all of the 
teeth can be ground as much as desired on the radial 
surfaces without affecting the accuracy of the cutters 
or work in any way whatever. 

If preferred, the parting tool G can be backed off or 
relieved in the ordinary way, but the circular cutters 
for turning, can only be relieved on the sides, if at all. 

In practice the angles to which the cutters are in- 
clined for clearance are precisely the same as when 
ordinary turning tools are employed, but in the 
engravings the clearance angles are somewhat exagger- 
ated to show this feature of the construction more 
prominently, a remark which (as far as the exaggera- 
tion of angles is concerned) applies with equal force to 
many other illustrations throughout the entire work, 
reference to which is made here to avoid any mis« 
understanding. 



275 



CHAPTER XXX. 

Lathe Work. — Continued. 

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS FOR LATHE WORK. 

Fortunately for the machinist of the present day, 
the managemeDt of most machine shops realize the 
importance and imperative necessity of furnishing 
standard gauges for the workmen's use, and as 
a general rule make every reasonable effort to provide 
such instruments for their employees. But there 
is of course a limit by which the supply of such 
instruments has to be regulated, for when the length 
and diameter of the work exceed a certain figure, then 
the employment of standard gauges for general use in 
the workshop becomes an utter impossibility, unless 
such standards are made in the form of measuring 
bars with hardened ends, templates, inside microme- 
ter calipers, etc., and even then it is best to do the 
measuring by the ordinary means, and to employ the 
standards as reference gauges, or to set the calipers, or 
test the work by. The standard gauges for either 
large or small work need not of necessity be made or 
provided in sets, but should always be such as are best 
adapted for the work. In fact a shop that is not pro- 
vided with standards suited to the requirements of the 
men and work, is not considered to be in " touch" 
with the approved methods and practice of the day. 
Many of our leading mechanics prefer to furnish their 
own standard gauges, and either make them them- 
selves or buy them separately (in such sizes as are 



276 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

suited for their work), or in sets, as preferred. A set 
of such gauges, consisting of forty-five hardened discs, 
ranging in size (by sixteenths) from \" to 3" inclusive, 
can, owing to the improved methods of manufacture, 
be bought for the small sum of $35. And it is certain 
that but very few shops or individual mechanics could 
make a set of such gauges for twice that figure. 
There is therefore very little inducement for either a 
mechanic or a shop to make their own gauges, unless 
they do so for specific reasons; but somehow or other, 
there are numbers of superintendents and mechanics 
who prefer to make their own gauges and other tools 
besides, whenever possible (regardless of the fact that 
it has in all probability cost them considerably more 
to make the gauges than they could have been bought 
for, and that they have in most cases got an inferior 
article at that), and seem to take a pride in showing 
and alluding to them as being of their own make. 

These remarks must not be construed into implying 
that gauges (or other tools) should not in any case be 
self-made, when such can be purchased from the deal- 
ers, but, on the contrary, when the proper facilities 
and skill are available, we would advise that such 
implements and tools should be self-made, for we 
have in numerous instances seen examples of such 
self(home)-made tools that would compare very favor- 
ably with, and in some cases excel, any thing of the kind 
on the market. But what we would assert is that, unless 
the skill and facilities are available, it is a waste of 
time and money to attempt to make such implements 
or tools, when a superior article can be purchased at a 
less cost elsewhere. But, on the other hand, the 
crudest kind of a gauge is preferable to none at all, 
even if it is only a cast-iron disc, plug or ring gauge. 
It can be preserved for reference and for setting the 
calipers, or testing the work by, and in that manner 
the correct size can be maintained for an almost 



LATHE WORK. 277 

indefinite period, and the work and processes expedi- 
ated considerably thereby. 

PLUG AND DISC GAUGES. 

In general practice "plug '' and " disc " gauges are 
preferred and used more extensively on lathe work 
than any other kind (not excluding the regular and 
special forms of " snap gauges "). The plug or cylin- 
drical gauges are frequently made in the form of 
" limit gauges," one end of the gauge being made a 
stipulated amount above and the other end below 
the size the gauge is intended to represent, so that, 
when a hole is bored to the gauge in such a manner 
that the small end of the gauge will enter freely, and 
the large end will not enter at all, the hole is known to 
be bored within the limits required. A more practical 
method of maintaining the size of the work within the 
limits desired has never been devised, and it cannot be too 
highly commended. The only objection to the em- 
ployment of plug gauges is that there is never any 
provision made to admit of the exit of the entrapped 
air when the plug gauge is applied to test the size of 
a hole that is open on one end only, and hence it is 
impossible to tell with any degree of accuracy whether 
the hole is bored to the right size or not. So frequently 
has the necessity of some such provision being made 
in plug gauges for this purpose occurred under the 
author's observation and in his own practice, that he 
is convinced that the defect should be promptly 
remedied. There are two methods' by which this can 
be done. The first and easiest (and which we have 
usually employed in our own practice) is to cut a 
small groove the whole length of the gauge, as shown 
in Figure 222, which represents a one-ended plug 
gauge, with the groove A cut therein. The second 
method is to drill a small hole through the body of 
the gauge, as shown (in the same figure) by the dotted 
lines at B, with an opening at C. 



278 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



In boring such work as that shown in the semi- 
sectional view, Figure 223, where W represents the 

A 




Fig. 222. 

work bolted to the face-plate D, with the plug gauge 
E already entered therein, it will be apparent that, 
unless some provision for the purpose mentioned is 
made, the hole would have to be bored larger than 
required before the gauge could be entered at all. 
Another form of gauge employed somewhat exten- 



P 



* 



%\\\\4\\\^\\x^ m 



j} 



W J3 




Fig. 223. 

sively for boring holes is the disc gauge. Tnese 
gauges are usually arranged in such manner as to be 
held by an inserted handle, as shown in Figure 224, 
which represents a disc gauge made by the Brown & 
Sharpe Mfg. Co. The disc shown in Figure 224 is 
held by the handle shown in Figure 225. These 



LATHE WORK. 279 

gauges are exceedingly useful in the workshop, and 
are frequently used without the handles for setting 
calipers, testing measuring tools and determining sizes 
in shop practice. They are, however, owing to their 





Fig. 225. 
Fig. 224. 

narrow width of surface, intended to serve more as 
reference than as working gauges, but when made 
sufficiently wide make excellent working gauges. 

RING OR COLLAR GAUGES. 

" Ring" or, as they are usually termed, " collar " 
gauges are employed either for turning or boring, or 
both, according to the manner in which they are 
constructed. 

Figures 226 and 227 represent a special form of 
collar gauge that can be used for turning or boring, or 
both, as preferred. As shown therein, the inside of 
the ring is bored to 1" standard size, and is used for 
turning shafts and other work of that diameter. The 
ring is also turned on the outside to 2" standard, and 
is used for boring holes of that diameter. This form 
of gauge was originally intended to serve as a refer- 
ence gauge only, was made of a good grade of very hard 
cast iron, and when simply used as such, it served its 
purpose admirably, as there was no wear whatever to 
it. It is now used as a working gauge, is made of 
steel, and is hardened and ground in the usual way. 
Other proportions for the inside and outside diameters 
can of course be employed if desired. 



280 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



In boring ring or collar gauges that require to be 
very accurately sized, the work (ring) should never be 
held in a lathe chuck by its outer diameter, as the 





Fig. 226. 



Fig. 227. 



pressure required to hold it may cause it to collapse 
somewhat, and on the pressure being released the 
work would spring back to its original shape, and 
hence the hole would not be true. The work should 




therefore be held in the manner shown in the semi- 
sectional engraving, Figure 228, where the work W is 
held by means of the clamps A A' on the ring B 
against the face-plate C. 



LATHE WORK. 



281 




Another very handy form of collar gauge is shown 
in Figure 229. Thisgaugeis bored to 
fit on the tail-center of the lathe, and 
has removable distance pieces or 
tram-points a a' a" a ,r/ , which can 
be adjusted to represent the radius of 
any diameter to be turned on the 
lathe. It is used for facilitating 
the setting of lathe tools in the 
manner shown in Figure 230, where A represents the 
collar gauge in position on the dead-center o, the 
work W being held between the centers in the usual 
way. 

It is obvious that if the gauge is rotated, the tool 
can be adjusted thereby to 
the radius required by 
making the point of the 
tram a to just touch the 
point of the tool T in the 
manner shown. It is not 
claimed that this method is 
accurate enough to finish 
work by, for the lost motion Figt 2S0t 

in the cross-feed screw 

would prevent this ; but it has been found of great 
assistance in setting the tools for roughing cuts. 




282 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

Items of Interest. 
"odd-legged calipers" and their uses. 

Figure 231 represents a pair of " odd-legged cali- 
pers/' which consist of a pair of caliper legs, with the 
toes both pointing in the same direction. 
This form of caliper is quite common in 
England, but they are not used to any ex- 
tent in America. In fact; although we have 
been in a great many shops, we cannot 
recall a single instance where they were 
used, still we are informed on reliable 
authority that they are used here occa- 
sionally. But there is one thing of 
which we are certain, and that is, that, if 
their utility was better known, there are 
few machinists who would care to be 
without them. It is, therefore, intended to show a few 




Fig. 231. 





Fig. 232. Fig. 233. 

examples of their application in machine-shop practice. 
Let it be supposed that a semicircular bearing has 



ITEMS OF INTEREST. 



283 



to be bored, such, for instance, as the axle box for a 
locomotive engine or one of the brasses for a connect- 
ing-rod. When the work has been chucked and the 
cut started, the diameter of the bore would inordinary 
practice be measured in the manner shown in Figure 
232, by means of a pair of inside calipers and a small 
scale or parallel A held against the point of the tool 
T. In the hands of a careful workman the diameter 
of a semicircular bore can be measured very closely 
by this means, but this method is by no means as 
reliable as when the odd- 
legged calipers are em- 
ployed for this purpose, as 
the measuring can be done 
direct from the point of the 
tool to the bore of the work 
in the manner shown in 
Figure 233. When used 
as shown in Figure 234, 
these calipers can be em- 
ployed in such a manner Fi 9> 234. 
as to simplify and ensure the more correct admeasure- 
ment of distances on many other kinds of machine and 
vise work. As, for instance, in measuring the distance 
from the end a to the shoulder a' of the work W (Figure 
234), usually the end a would be faced-off first, and 
the distance from a to a' measured by means of a pair 
of inside calipers, holding a parallel against the face 
a to measure from. But obviously as shown in the 
figure, either surface can be faced first when the 
measurements are made by means of the odd-legged 
calipers. Or, in a similar manner, in measuring from 
the surface a' to the surface a", either surface can be 
faced-off first, as desired, if the measuring is done (as 
shown by the dotted lines) with these calipers. 

Reference has already been made * to the employment 

*Chap. XXL, Fig. 161, page 201 




284 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

of this form of caliper for the purpose of locating 
the holes in jigs, die-plates and other work requiring 
to be very accurately spaced. 

By the ordinary methods the holes are always 
spaced off, and laid out in circles, regardless of the 
means to be employed for doing the boring. But, as 
explained in the chapter referred to, the necessity for 
laying the holes out in circles does not always exist; 
in fact, it sometimes happens that these circles lead to 
confusion, besides being a waste of time and marring 
the surface of the work. Then again the holes are 
usually first indicated and bored, and are then fitted 
with plugs to admit of the necessary measurements. 
This method of fitting plugs in the holes is very 
accurate and reliable, and is by no means to be 
condemned ; but so long as it amounts to precisely the 
same thing as measuring from edge to edge of the 
holes themselves, it is somewhat surprising that the 
latter method is not more generally adopted, thereby 
saving the expense of fitting the plugs. There are at 
least three methods by which equally reliable results 
can be obtained with a fraction of the time and 
trouble. The first method consists in measuring from 
the outer edge (diameter) of one hole to the outer edge 
of the other hole by means of a pair of ordinary inside 
calipers, adding (if the holes are to be bored alike) one 
diameter to the distance the holes are to be spaced 
apart, or an equivalent amount when the holes are of 
different diameters ; or, if preferred, measuring from the 
inside edge of one hole to the inside edge of the other 
hole, and, instead of adding, deducting the necessary 
amount from the distance the holes are to be spaced 
apart, making the measurements by means of either in- 
side or outside calipers as desired. By the second method 
the measuring is done by means of the odd-legged 
calipers, measuring, as shown in Figure 235, from the 
outside a' of one hole to the inside a of the other hole. 



ITEMS OF INTEREST. 



285 




Fig. 235. 



This is the most accurate method of any for measur- 
ing the distance the holes should 
be spaced apart, because in meas- 
uring from the inside of one hole 
to the outside of the other hole 
amounts to the same thing as 
measuring from center to center 
of the holes. When the holes 
are both of the same diameter, 
the calipers should be set to the 
distance the holes are to be 
spaced apart ; but when the holes 
are of different diameters, then 
the calipers should be set one-half 
of the difference in the two diameters less than the 
distance the holes are to be spaced apart. For 
example, let it be supposed that two holes are to be 
drilled in a piece of work, the diameter of one hole to 
be 2", and of the other hole 1", to be spaced 4" from 
center to center; as one-half the difference in the 
diameter of the two holes is J", the calipers should be set 
to 3 J", instead of 4/' the distance from center to center 
of the holes. 

The third method consists in making the measure- 
ments in any of the foregoing ways, but by means of 
a pair of " beam " calipers. But if the measuring is 
to be done in the same manner as with the odd-legged 
calipers (as shown in Figure 235), the adjustable jaw 
should be reversed on the caliper beam, so that the 
inside measuring tongues will both face the same 
way. 

For making measurements in this manner beam 
calipers have the advantage of being adjustable to the 
thousandths of an inch. But, after all, in the hands 
of a careful and skilled mechanic, there are no surer 
means by which comparison in measurements can be 
as accurately determined as by the " sense of touch." 



286 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



Hence, many of our leading mechanics prefer the plain 
common riveted caliper to any other kind, depending 
on delicacy of touch alone to obtain the required pre- 
cision in their measurements. 

A very simple and efficient gauge is the test or 
measuring bar shown in Figure 236. These gauges 




Fig. 236. 

are made of any length desired, up to say 12", are 
hardened and ground on the ends, to the shape shown 
in the figure. This form of gauge is very popular, 
and is easy to make. It is not, as far as we are 
aware, on the market, but it seems as though there 
would be a good demand for it, if it were on the 
market. 



287 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

Items of Interest. — Continued. 



FACE-PLATE PARALLELS. 

Of the many little conveniences for facilitating the 
various operations on lathe work there is probably 
none that receives less attention than the distance 
pieces or parallels for blocking out the many kinds of 
work from the face-plate, and yet it is always desir- 
able that a convenient form of parallel should be 
available at all times, for it is often a matter of some 
difficulty to hold the ordinary parallel (such as used 
on the planer or shaper) in place on the face-plate 
while the work is being set in position for the 
operation. 

A very convenient form of distance piece or parallel 
is shown in Figure 237. This 
parallel can be very readily 
set on the face-plate in any 
position desired. It is held 
in place by means of a bolt 
inserted in the tapped hole a, 
and is slotted at b to admit of vi g . 237. 

the clamp bolts being placed either on the inside or 
outside of the work. The parallel can be made to hold 
the work any distance from the face-plate required. 
It can be made from a separate pattern, or, when such 
are available, from the lugs of the piston ring casting 
(shown in Figures 141 and 142) after the rings have 
been cut off. 




288 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



They are also very handy for facilitating the setting 
of a number of pieces of work, such as pulleys, gears, 
etc., either by the inside or outside diameter of the 
rim. When employed for setting the work by the 
outside diameter, they are stepped in the manner 
shown at a b, Figure 238, and when employed for 





Fig. 238. Fig. 239, 

setting the work by the inner diameter of the rim, they 
are stepped as shown in Figure 239. 

When arranged in this manner, after the parallels 
(three being the number usually employed) have been 
set for the first piece of the work, they are almost 
equivalent to a lathe chuck, as all that is required 
when one piece has been operated on is to remove 
that piece and insert another piece right in the same 
place. It will then be found that very little extra 
setting is required thereon. 

MAKING SPRINGS IN THE LATHE. 

There are many excellent devices for making heli- 
cal (spiral) springs in the lathe, most of which are so 
familiar as to need no mention herein. 




Fig. 240. 



A very simple and efficient device for this purpose 
is shown in Figure 240. The device consists of a L 



ITEMS OF INTEREST. 289 

tool T held in the tool-post B with a hole drilled 
therein at a, to admit of the wire W being passed 
through it freely. The wire is fastened in the end b 
of the arbor A and is coiled by revolving the arbor in 
the ordinary way, feeding the wire and guide tool T 
along by means of the screw-cutting feed. By this 
means any number of coils or turns to the inch can 
be made as required ; but as the spring will expand 
on being relieved, a smaller arbor should be used 
than the internal diameter of the finished spring. 

FLUTING TAPS, ETC., IN THE LATHE. 

In almost every machine shop there is an occasional 
call for some method or device suitable for " groov- 
ing" and "fluting" work of various kinds — such as 
taps, reamers, spindles for automatic feeding, " oil 
cups," etc. ; and in many such cases, as no milling 
machine is available, the work is usually done on the 
planer or shaper, and afterwards finished by the vise- 
hand, or it is done altogether by the vise-hand. 

There is no question but what the work can be done 
well by both the above methods by any ordinary 
mechanic, but as the grooving or fluting of such work 
as that mentioned can be done more expeditiously and 
to better advantage in the lathe, and as the outfit 
required is of a simple and inexpensive kind, it is of 
course better to do it on the lathe. 

The operation of grooving or fluting work in the 
lathe can be performed in two ways: first, by means 
of a traversing tool held in the tool-post, and fed 
across the work by means of the screw or carriage 
feed, the work being held stationary between the lathe 
centers; and secondly, by means of a rotary cutter re- 
volved between the lathe centers, the work being held 
between chucking centers, and the operation performed 
in precisely the same manner as if performed on the 
milling machine. 



290 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



The first method is seldom resorted to except in the 
absence of any other machine on which the operation 
can be performed. But by the second method the 
operation can be performed with an efficiency and at 
a cost that will compare very favorably with the same 
operation on the milling machine. 

The manner in which the operation is performed 




Fiff. 241. 

by the second method is shown in Figure 241, wherein 
the cutter C is held on the arbor A between the lathe 
centers, and the work (tap) is held between the 
chucking centers B. The shank of the chucking cen- 
ters is held in the tool-post, which admits of their 
being adjusted for height the same as any other tool. 
The chucking centers and work are supported by 
means of the adjustable bracket a and supporting 
screw D, which is fitted on the bottom in a hole in the 
plate E to prevent the centers and work from moving 
sideways. The work is prevented from turning on the 
centers by the stop-plate F. The adjustable center G 
can be set to tH length desired by sliding it along 
the bar B. 



ITEMS OF INTEREST. 291 

GRINDING. 

In many lines of manufacture in modern machine- 
shop practice, grinding occupies a very important 
place. But in general practice it is not so much of a 
necessity, except on tool work, such as grinding 
reamers, etc. Yet there are very few places where 
grinding could not be profitably employed on certain 
lines of the work. 

The term grinding as herein used is intended to 
imply the grinding and polishing of metal work by 
means of "emery" wheels, "corundum" wheels, 
" carbo-rundum " wheels, and belts and buff wheels 
charged with emery, crocus or rouge, but the term emery 
wheel or emery will be employed exclusively to desig- 
nate any of the above compounds. 

On this as on previous subjects it is assumed that 
the reader is already acquainted with, or can, from 
other sources, acquire a knowledge of the special forms 
of grinding machines. It may, however, be stated 
that a knowledge of the methods of operating the 
various forms of special and universal grinding ma- 
chines is very desirable, and is not infrequently very 
important to the machinist. 

GRINDING ON THE LATHE. 

The devices for grinding work on the lathe are of 
such varied forms that to give them other than a 
passing notice would be almost a waste of time, as so 
much depends upon the nature of the work to be 
ground. 

In ordinary practice it is usual to give the emery 
wheels a speed of from 3,000 to 5,000 circumferential 
feet per minute. This variation in the speed is depend- 
ent on the following conditions : . 

First, by the grade of emery of which the wheel is 
composed ; secondly, by the nature of the work, the 
amount of metal to be removed, and whether the work 



292 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

has to be roughed out or finished ; and thirdly, by 
the diameter of the wheel itself, and the power avail- 
able for driving it. 

The rate at which an emery wheel should be run 
is usually marked on a label on every wheel that is 
sent out by the dealer. But whenever there is any 
doubt as to the speed at which an emery wheel should 
be run for any kind of work, the question is generally 
referred to the manufacturer of the emery wheels, 
stating the kind of work to be ground and all other par- 
ticulars. And it might be as well to state here that a 
great deal of annoyance and expense can frequently 
be entirely avoided, and much more economical and 
satisfactory results obtained by following this method 
of procedure. 

For grinding work on the lathe two methods are in 
vogue for furnishing the power to drive the emery 
wheel. By the first and most efficient method, the 
power is supplied independently from an overhead 
drum, and by the second method the power is supplied 
either directly or indirectly from the lathe itself. 

Regarding the employment of the first method of 
furnishing the power, whenever there is a sufficiency 
of such work to be done to warrant the cost of con- 
struction, it is much to be preferred to any other, inas- 
much as the motion is furnished direct to the wheel; 
and when not employed for grinding the drum can be 
utilized for other purposes besides — such, for instance, 
as driving a drilling or other attachment. 

But by the second method, wherein the motion for 
driving the grinding wheel is derived from the lathe 
itself, the grinding cut must of necessity be very light, 
as the appliances which are driven in this manner are 
always intended for light finishing, and never for 
roughing out work. 

Sometimes the device is driven from the face-plate, 
and in other cases from the cone pulleys of the lathe. 



ITEMS OF INTEREST. 



293 




When the motion is derived, as explained, from an 
overhead drum, the grinder usually partakes of the 
form shown in Figure 242, wherein the grinder A is 
represented as being held in 
the rest B B in place of the 
tool-post, the motion being sup- 
plied direct from the drum by 
means of the belt C C. 

This form of grinder is most- 
ly used for grinding cylindrical 
work, the work revolving slow- 
ly (in either direction as 
preferred) between the lathe 
centers. It is, however, occa- Fi9 ' 242, 

sionally used for grinding (sharpening) reamers and 
such work, in which case the work is fixed between 
the centers but not revolved. 

When it is employed for grinding internal cylindri- 
cal surfaces, the wheel D is removed and a smaller 
chucking arbor fixed on the end of the spindle in the 
place thereof. 

There are other special forms of grinders for the 
lathe, but the above is what may be termed the regu- 
lation style. 

Figure 243 represents a universal grinding attach- 
ment for lathes. It consists of a grinding wheel A 
mounted on a compound slide rest, and two brackets 
B B' which are clamped on the shears of the lathe bed. 
A glance at the engraving will at once show the ar- 
rangement of the pulleys and belts. The flat belt C 
receives its motion from the cone pulley of the lathe 
and thence transmits the motion to the grinding wheel 
by means of the round belt D which runs in grooved 
pulleys. 

The bracket B is clamped on the shears opposite 
the largest step of the cone pulleys, andean be adjusted 
vertically to correspond with the height of the 



294 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



lathe-spindle, and horizontally to give the required 
tension to the flat belt, which arrangement makes it 
possible to use the same belt on nearly all sizes of 
lathes. 

The bracket B' is also clamped on the shears, but 
to the right of the tail-stock. The pulley shown 
thereon serves to guide and also to give the required 
tension to the round belt that drives the grinding wheel. 
A constant tension is maintained on the belt by means 
of a spring inclosed in the box E between the clamps 
and the pulley. 




Fig. 243. 

The clamps B B' are adjustable to suit every design 
and thickness of shears. The guide pulleys a a' are 
adjustable horizontally by means of a slide bar and a 
small bracket b, to bring them in line with the guide 
pulleys on the brackets B B r , and will generally come 
in line with the lathe-shears. The slide rest upon 
which the grinding wheel is mounted is made to 
swing round to any angle desired, the same as a 
compound rest, whenever it is required to grind 
the lathe centers, taper holes, etc., the hand wheel c 
being used for the feed. 

It is often desirable when grinding work on the 
lathe to employ grinding wheels which differ in size 



ITEMS OF INTEREST. 295 

and shape from the ordinary forms and sizes ; and in 
other cases it is frequently necessary to fix the wheel on 
the chucking arbor by other means than those usually 
adopted for this purpose, which generally consists in 
holding the wheel on the arbor or spindle between 
two collars by means of a jam-nut or its equivalent in 
the form of a binding screw. Especially is this ne- 
cessity felt when grinding the internal surfaces of 
work, as the chucking screw or nut would be in the 
way, owing to the contracted position in which the 
wheel has to work. 

As most of the grinding wheels of small diameter 
can be softened by the application of heat, they can 
very readily be secured on the end of the arbor or 
spindle by simply heating the latter by means of a 
bunsen-burner, and then screwing or pressing the 
wheel thereon as far as required; when, on the spindle 
being cooled off, the wheel will be found to adhere 
with surprising tenacity ; or, in a similar manner, the 
wheel can be fastened on the spindle by means of a 
little gum shellac. 

So firmly can an emery wheel be held by the above 
means that it can be used until it is worn right down 
to the spindle — or splits before it becomes loose. 

Small grinding wheels can be made or shaped to any 
form desired, either in a mold, or by heating the com- 
pound on the spindle with a bunsen-burner until it can 
be manipulated to the shape required, using for this 
purpose the parts of other (larger) wheels which have 
been previously discarded on account of wear. In 
this manner a good deal of time and expense can fre- 
quently be saved, besides utilizing the scraps of larger 
wheels which would otherwise have to be thrown 
away. It is perfectly safe and proper to employ the 
scraps of larger wheels to make smaller wheels of, as 
there is no danger of the smaller wheels bursting. 
And, although larger wheels could in like manner be 



296 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



constructed out of scraps, we should hardly think it 
safe to employ the wheels so made for practical pur- 
poses, for, though a large wheel made in this man- 
ner might to all appearance be perfectly sound, there 
may be some hidden flaw which could not be detected 
until the wheel burst. We have never seen wheelf 
made, or attempted to make wheels in this mannei 
that were over three inches in diameter. 



297 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

Items of Interest. — Continued. 

GRINDING PLANE SURFACES. 

The grinding of plane, parallel or flat surfaces is 
very easy of accomplishment, providing the facilities 
for doing the work are of the right kind. There may 
be some difference of opinion as to what constitutes 
the proper facilities for grinding any kind of work, 
but the principal object is to grind the work perfectly 
true with the least expenditure of time and money, 
and the ability to accomplish this is of more impor- 
tance than anything else. Hence no particular method 
or system can be advocated for grinding flat surfaces, 
in preference to others, unless it can be proven that 
one method will give better results than another, 
which is at all times a matter of some difficulty ; for 
when once any particular method has been decided 
upon for doing the work it is generally retained unless 
it can be shown that better results are being obtained 
on the same class of work elsewhere by some other 
method. 

One of the principal reasons and advantages of fin- 
ishing parallel surfaces by grinding is the avoidance 
of having to finish the work while it is held in clamp- 
ing fixtures of any kind, which are at all times objec- 
tionable, inasmuch as there is always a likelihood of the 
work being sprung when it is so held ; and for that 
reason, though it may be absolutely necessary to hold 
the work in a chuck or by clamps while it is being 
roughed out, it should always be finished in such 



298 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 






manner as to eliminate all inaccuracies which may 
have been caused by clamping ; and this can only be 
accomplished by traversing the work under, over or 
by the grinding wheel without there being any strain 
upon it from any cause whatever. One of the most 
practical methods of surfacing work by grinding is to 
arrange a perfectly true work-table over the grinding 
wheel in such manner that the grinding wheel can 
work freely in an aperture in the table exactly level 
with the upper surface of the same, so that by sliding 
the work on the table directly over the wheel it can 
be ground true without being held by chucking or 
clamping. 




Fig. 244. 

Another method regarded very highly everywhere 
is that of sliding the work on a similar work-table 
arranged under the grinding wheel, the principle 
involved in the construction and operation of the ma- 
chine being the same as shown in Figure 244, where 
A A' represents the (in this case improvised) work-table, 
B B' grinding wheels, W W work. 

It is very rarely that a true surface can be ground 
when the grinding wheel is run at such a high rate 
of speed as five thousand circumferential feet per 
minute. 

Such a speed is all right when the object sought is 
principally to remove stock and obtain a reasonably 



ITEMS OF INTEREST. 299 

true surface on the work; but where it is desired to 
produce a perfectly true surface the speed of the grind- 
ing wheel must be reduced (for finishing) until there 
is no perceptible or actual vibration to the w T heel at 
all, or, in other words, until the wheel will run abso- 
lutely smooth. 

It is often possible to produce a much truer surface 
with a coarse grade wheel running with a perfectly 
smooth motion than can be produced by a finer grade 
wheel running at a higher velocity, as a wheel run- 
ning under the latter conditions has usually such an 
undulating motion that it is impossible to produce a 
true surface ; hence a finer grade wheel running with 
a perfectly smooth motion will produce a smoother, 
and, if such a thing is possible, a truer surface than a 
coarser grade wheel running under the same condi- 
tions. 

The undesirable effects of high velocity grinding 
can to some extent be minimized on the same grinder 
by employing a coarse grade wheel of large diameter 
(speeded at the regulation rate) on one end of the 
arbor of the machine for roughing the work out, and a 
finer grade wheel of smaller diameter on the other 
end of the arbor to finish the work by (as shown in 
Figure 244). But, although the placing of awheel of 
smaller diameter on the same arbor is a ready means 
of reducing the circumferential velocity of the grind- 
ing wheel, yet, practically speaking, the undulatory 
motion of the belt and grinding wheels still remains 
to be overcome, and this can, as already stated, only 
be accomplished by reducing the speed until the 
wheels have a perfectly smooth motion. The amount 
of this reduction of speed will depend to some extent 
on the general condition and construction of the ma- 
chine, and consequently, if the machine is of a good 
design and in good condition, a very slight reduction 
in speed may accomplish the desired result; but if the 



300 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

machine is faulty, or out of order, a considerable re- 
duction in speed may be necessary. 

Usually a perfectly true surface cannot be produced 
on the best machines at a greater speed than two 
thousand circumferential feet per minute, but this of 
course is only for finishing. A speed of nearly or fully 
five thousand feet per minute can be maintained at 
all times for roughing out, a very slight allowance, 
not exceeding the one-thousandth part of an inch, 
being amply sufficient for finishing, and consequently 
the finishing can be accomplished even at a greatly 
reduced speed — very expeditiously. 

The method of surface grinding shown in Figure 
244 is employed quite extensively in general practice 
where the amount of the work to be ground is in- 
sufficient to call for special machines for the purpose. 
In this case an ordinary bench grinder is employed 
with an improvised work-table A and A' arranged 
under the grinding wheels in such manner that 
by raising or lowering either or both ends of the work- 
table the work can be fed under the wheel (in the 
direction indicated by the arrows) and ground to 
the size required. 

For occasional jobs of grinding this method can be 
employed on almost any ordinary grinder, and is in 
lieu of better facilities as efficient as anything which 
can be improvised for the purpose. 

In Figure 245 is shown a device employed for facet 
grinding, and also for grinding small pieces of very 
thin work, such as the cutters for " horse" and 
" barber's " clippers, etc. 

The disc A, which is usually made of lead or cast 
iron (though occasionally faced with solid emery), is 
arranged horizontally on the top of a vertical spindle 
B, and is driven from the pulleys D by means of the 
bevel-gears C, and in other cases by means of a 
quarter-turn belt. In grinding with this device, the 



ITEMS OF INTEREST. 



301 



disc A is moistened or lubricated with water or oil 
and then sprinkled plentifully with emery. The 
work is ground by holding it thereon by suitable 
means, the roughing out being done near the outer 
circumference of the disc, and the finishing by holding 
the work near or directly over the center, which, as in 
the preceding example, amounts to the same thing 
as roughing out at a higher and finishing at a lower 
velocity of speed. 

A very efficient and practical method of grinding 
parallel work is shown in Figure 246. It consists in 




Fig. 245. 

arranging a sliding grinder-head on the cross-rail of a 
planer in such a manner that the grinding wheel can 
be driven from overhead in the ordinary way, and at 
the same time a reciprocating lateral motion is 
imparted to the sliding head so as to cause the grinding 
wheel to cross and re-cross the work, thereby main- 
taining a true surface on both the wheel and the 
work. 

In the figure A represents the sliding grinder-head 
mounted in the slide- way A' on the cross-rail B. The 
grinding wheel C is driven by the belt D D. The re- 
ciprocating motion is imparted to the grinder A C 
from the crank E and connecting-rod F. 



302 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



The work is held in a suitable manner on the 
platen (the speed of which is reduced to correspond 
with the requirements) of the machine. If any of the 
bolt and slot holes extend through the platen, they 
are plugged up with wood to protect the mechanism 
underneath from the emery dust. The V-ways are pro- 
tected by having a roll of cotton-muslin on a drum 
on each end of the bed; one end of the sheet muslin 
is attached to the end of the platen, so that, as it is 
traversed backwards and forwards, the muslin is wound 
or unwound on or from the drums according to the 
direction in which the platen is moving, the motion 
of the platen causing the muslin to unwind from the 




Fig. 246. 

drum and to raise a weight attached thereto, which, 
on the platen being reversed, rewinds the muslin on 
the drum. 

Grinding machines constructed on these lines are 
used for grinding hardened guide-bars, and the bodies 
of connecting-rods, and a large variety of similar work, 
and are very successful and economical. On all such 
machines the grinder-head is operated directly on the 
cross-rail, but that shown in the engraving is a modi- 
fication of the same device as adapted to and em- 
ployed on the ordinary planer, the independent 
slide-way A r being used in preference to the cross-rail 
to avoid wear on the latter. 

The principle of giving a reciprocating lateral to 



ITEMS OF INTEREST. 303 

the grinding wheel has also been effected directly on 
the spindle of the grinder by means of a cam and a 
fixed roller, but the device shown appears to give 
steadier and more satisfactory results. 

There are two very effective methods of grinding 
the edges of thin work. By " thin work " is meant 
either long or short strips or pieces of metal work, 
that is, say, from one-half inch to twenty feet in 
length, and of any width up to three inches, and from 
one-sixty-fourth to one-fourth of an inch thick. 

By the first method (which is the one usually em- 
ployed) the work is held flat-wise on the work-table 
or platen of the machine, and is fed by the side of a 
" dished" or " hollow " grinding wheel, so that the 
surface ground is perfectly straight, and not concave, 
as it would be if fed in a similar manner by the per- 
iphery of the wheel. 

By the second method, after the work has been 
ground on the flat sides, a number of the pieces are 
bunched and clamped together, and the combined 
edges ground as though it were one broad surface, on 
any ordinary surfacing machine (such as already 
shown). 

On many kinds of work a perfectly straight edge is 
absolutely necessary, and it is also essential that the 
work should be parallel and of the same width 
throughout its entire length. 

On other classes of work, such as the knives for pa- 
per-cutting machines, dovetailed slide-pieces, etc., the 
edges of the work have to be beveled, and ground 
perfectly straight besides. By using ordinary care 
any of the above requirements can be fulfilled by either 
of the methods referred to, but, when the work has to 
be beveled on the edges, one piece only can be oper- 
ated on at a time. 

The manner in which the work is ground on 
the edges by the first process is shown in Figures 



304 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



247 and 248, which represent an end elevation and plan 
view of the work-table or 
platen A, recessed grinding 
wheel and pulleys B, with the 
work W in position for the 
operation on the adjustable 
angle-plates C C C. The work 
W is a knife for a paper- 
cutting machine, and is shown 
separately in Figure 249. 




^FFl 



Fig. 247. 




w 

-V- 




Ik 



C A 



Fig. 248. 




Fig. 249. 

When the edges of the work have to be ground at 
right angles to the flat surfaces, it is only necessary 
to clamp the work directly on the platen and feed it 
along in the ordinary way, regulating the width 
(when such regulation is necessary) by placing 
suitable distance pieces in the T slots, and setting the 
work so that one edge abuts against them. 



ITEMS OF INTEREST. 305 

LEAD LAPS. 

On lathe work journals and other kinds of work 
can be ground very truly by means of a common 
" Lead Lap," consisting of two bent straps (resembling 
a pair of ordinary ''driving clamps") lined with lead, 
and adjustable by means of the binding screws, bored 
out a trifle longer than the diameter of the work and 
then charged with emery and oil. 

This device, though old, is very efficient and is 
employed for finishing work to the exact size, after 
it has been machined or filed to a close approximation 
of the same. 

A very true bearing can be made in this manner, 
and the only objection to its more extensive employ- 
ment is that, though the work can be ground perfectly 
true at every point of its diameter by this means, it may 
not be equally true with its axis ; hence the employ- 
ment of other devices, by means of which the work 
can be ground while it is revolving on centers true 
with its axis ; but in lieu of better facilities a good 
" lead lap" is by no means to be despised when a true 
finish is required. 



306 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 
Items of Interest. — Continued. 

POLISHING — BY GRINDING. 

Another important branch of grinding (though not 
generally designated as such) is the successive grind- 
ing of work to a finished (polished) surface by means 
of " grindstones," "emery" and " corundum" wheels, 
emery belts, and buff or other polishing wheels, the 
requirements on this class of work being to obtain a 
high polish on the surface of the work without chang- 
ing the shape thereof, or reducing the size more than 
necessary to accomplish the object sought. 

Perhaps the most extensive means employed in ma- 
chine shops, in roughing out the work under consider- 
ation, is the use of solid emery wheels ; but, although 
the solid emery wheel is and can be used to good ad- 
vantage in cutting down and shaping work in the 
rough prior to its being finished, the same end 
could undoubtedly be secured more expeditiously and 
to better advantage in many cases when properly 
handled on the grindstone, providing the latter is kept 
at all times perfectly true. This is fully evidenced by 
the very extensive manner in which grindstones are 
employed in preference to the solid emery wheel in 
the leading "cutlery," "Spring," and other manufac- 
tories. 

When the work has been roughed out it is usually 
polished on a wooden polishing wheel of large diam- 
eter faced with leather, and charged with emery or 
corundum, and is constructed in the following man- 
ner : The wheel proper is first constructed, or built up 



ITEMS OF INTEREST. 307 

in the same manner as any solid wooden-pulley or 
drum ; it is then turned up true, balanced, and faced 
on the periphery, with leather, the leather being 
stretched taut as possible, and held by glue and 
wooden pegs (such as shoe-makers use). The leather 
face of the wheel is then trued up and roughened by 
means of a coarse cut file. It is then coated with glue 
and charged, by rolling the wheel (while the glue is 
still soft) in a long narrow box or trough in which has 
been evenly spread a quantity of heated emery of the 
required grade. It is claimed that, " when the emery 
is heated before it is applied to the wheel, a percepti- 
ble gain is secured in the lasting qualities, as the em- 
ery is more thoroughly incorporated with the glue, 
and is consequently less liable to peel off in spots, or 
lose its cutting qualities so rapidly." (F. H. Treacy, 
"American Machinist," Vol. 14, No. 5.) 

Round or flat emery belts are charged with emery 
in a manner similar to the above, the joint of the belt 
being made by chamfering the ends of the belt off, so 
that when it is placed together the jointed part is of 
the same thickness as the rest of the belt. The joint 
is made by gluing the parts together between clamps, 
the same as in making joints in wood, on pattern 
work, no lacing whatever being used ; but as an addi- 
tional security a few of the wooden pegs mentioned 
above are driven into the jointed parts in any place 
desired. 

(We herewith make a digression to state that on 
quarter-turn and other belts employed for driving 
machinery for any purpose whatever, where trouble 
is experienced by the lacing, if the belt is joined in 
the above manner no further trouble will be experi- 
enced, as such a joint when properly made will 
generally last as long as the belt.) 

The finishing wheels are made by placing together 
a number of soft " leather/' " felt/' " cotton flannel " 



308 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

or " ducking" discs on the arbor of the polishing 
machine, revolving the wheels at a very high rate of 
speed, occasionally holding a cake composed of flour 
emery or crocus (stirred or mixed with bee's wax while 
in a melted state) and bee's wax against the periphery 
of the wheel while it is revolving in order that the discs 
may become coated or charged with the emery or 
crocus. 

Much of the success of polishing depends on the 
state in which the polishing wheels and belts are kept. 
If they are allowed to get out of order the results may 
be very disappointing, and the blame is liable to be 
placed elsewhere than where it belongs. Hence, the 
wheels and belts should be kept fully charged, and 
true at all times, and careless handling of either the 
work or tools (for the wheels and appliances are tools 
in the same sense that other appliances and machines 
are) should never be indulged in or tolerated. 



309 



CHAPTER XXXV. 
Drilling. 

As the subject of drilling is so thoroughly under- 
stood, a very brief mention will suffice therefor. Hence 
we can only find space for a few useful hints which 
have proved helpful in our own practice. 

Of recent years twist-drills have been employed for 
drilling holes up to three inches in diameter, almost 
to the exclusion of any other forms. In the larger 
establishments the drills are always ground or sharp- 
ened by the tool-maker in the tool-room on a special 
grinding machine, and, therefore, the operator or drill 
hand has nothing whatever to do but insert the drill 
in his machine and go ahead with his work, seldom 
knowing (and often not caring) whether the drill is 
operating under the most favorable conditions or not. 

It appears to the author that there is need of, and a 
chance for, some improvement in this method. If a 
machine is to be operated intelligently, the operator, 
however humble his occupation, should be thoroughly 
versed in every detail of his work, and should know 
the " why and wherefore " of every detail in the con- 
struction of the tool he has to operate. If it is a 
"twist-drill" he should know that the diameter of the 
drill gradually diminishes towards the shank end, 
that it is relieved or " backed off" for clearance from 
the advance lip towards the next flute or groove, and 
the exact amount of clearance that should be given 
the cutting edge or lip in order to obtain the best re- 
sults. He should also be able to grind the drill correct- 
ly either on the machine or by hand, and how to tell 




310 THE MODERN MACHINIST. 

when it is working properly. Then, even though 
he may never have to apply this knowledge, he can 
perform his duties in a more intelligent manner, and 
will in all probability take a deeper interest in what 
he is doing. 

It is doubtful if there is any machine in use that 
will hold and grind a twist-drill as accurately as- it 
can be ground by hand. A twist-drill can be ground 
so accurately by hand that, though its cutting action 
is perfect, the imperceptible heat generated by forcing 
the drill to the cut will expand the work slightly but 
sufficiently to prevent the drill being entered into the 
hole when the work has cooled off. In general prac- 
tice, though, this degree of accuracy is seldom called 
for. There is one thing in favor of a hand-ground drill, 
which is that the clearance angles can be ground off 
straight — and a drill so ground seems to last longer 
and cut better than when backed off in the form of an 
arc, as with the machine-ground drills. 

Another common mistake when the drills are ma- 
chine-ground is to give the drills for all classes of work 
the same amount of clearance, regardless of the mate- 
rial to be drilled. This is seldom done through ig- 
norance, but mostly through carelessness on the part 
of the attendant in the tool-room in not making the 
necessary inquiries as to what the drill is to be used 
for, and grinding a drill suitable for that purpose. If 
a reamer is called for, the inquiry as to what it is to 
be used for would almost invariably be made, and a 
reamer specially adapted for the material to be reamed 
is handed out. If this were more often done with refer- 
ence to drills, the operator would not be so frequently 
working at a disadvantage as he now is, neither would 
there be so many broken drills. 

Wherever a hole has to be drilled, there is nearly 
always another hole to be drilled in a counter location 
on some other part of the work, so that when the parts 



DRILLING. 311 

are assembled together the holes will coincide. If 
the number of pieces to be drilled will warrant the 
cost, the work is "jigged," so as to save the time which 
would be occupied in laying out and setting the work, 
and starting the drill correctly. 

When the quantity of the pieces to be drilled is be- 
low the minimum where the cost of jigging can be 
considered, there are three methods by which the 
holes can be correctly located. 

The first method, which is the more often em- 
ployed, is to lay out each part of the work separately. 

The second method is to lay out and drill one piece 
of the work, and then use that as a template to mark off 
the rest of the work — or as a jig to drill it by. A good 
deal of time and labor can be saved and a degree of 
accuracy attained that is surprising by employing one 
piece of the work as a jig to drill other parts by, as, 
for instance, in drilling one or more cylinders and cyl- 
inder-heads that are not jigged, one cylinder-head can 
be laid out and drilled, and then used to drill the cyl- 
inder or the rest of the cylinders by ; and in many 
cases it can be used for drilling the rest of the 
cylinder-heads also. And in a similar manner, as on 
stationary engine work, where the back cylinder-head 
is interposed between the engine-bed and the cylinder, 
the cylinder-head can be laid out first and drilled, and 
then used as a jig for drilling both the cylinder and 
the engine-bed. A large variety of work can be 
drilled in this manner, in most cases much closer 
than when the work is laid out separately, and with 
a fraction of the trouble. 

The third method of locating the holes consists in 
making a template that can be used for laying out 
either or both parts of the work. 

When work is "jigged" at all, a separate jig is 
generally made for each part of the work, the jig hav- 
ing flanges, lugs, or depressions thereon or therein, by 



312 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



the work; or, 
located on or 





which it can be located on or within 

vice versa, by which the work can be 

within the jig. 

Figure 250 shows the method ordinarily employed 

for jigging work of almost any kind. In the figure 

the work A, which represents a flanged 

pipe, is drilled through the jig B, the 

holes being located and the drill guided 

by the bushings a b. 

It is obvious that, if for any reason the 

holes in the flange are unevenly spaced, 

a jig constructed in this manner 

could not be used for drilling the flange Fig. 250. 

of the adjoining piece of piping. An 

example of this kind is shown in Figure 251, where 

it is required to drill the flanges A A', which abut 
against the angular metallic 
walls B' B". This example is 
taken from actual practice, and 
serves to show how a jig can be 
made so as to be used for drill- 
ing two separate pieces of work, 
and also, how a template made 
on similar lines can be used for 
laying the same off. Referring 
Fig. 251. to Figures 252 and 253, which 

represent a plan view and side 






Fig. 252. 

elevation (partly in section) of the jig B with the part 
A (Figure 251) in position to be drilled, it will be 



DRILLING. 



313 




Fig. 254. 



seen that, if instead of recessing the jig plate B on one 
side only (as in Figure 250) it is recessed on both 
sides, it can be applied to the flange of either 
part of the work, and the holes correctly 
located and drilled through the same 
guide bushings ; but when a jig is to be 
employed in this manner, the guide bush- 
ings a are made as shown (on an en- 
larged scale) in Figure 254, which admits 
of the jig being laid in close contact with 
the work, and of the drill being entered 
from either side of the jig as required. 

In the above case the jig is termed an " outside 
jig"; but when the nature of the work calls for it a jig 
can be constructed that will serve as both an "inside" 
and an "outside" jig ; and likewise, when applied on 
the same principle to templates, they can be used for 
both purposes. 

To demonstrate the above a somewhat exceptional 
example has been chosen, but it is doubtful if any- 
thing more appropriate could have been selected for 
the purpose. 

Let it be supposed that the 
plate A and cover B (which 
has been broken away to show 
the requirements), Figure 255, 
are to be jigged, and it is desired 
that the jig shall be arranged 
so that the plate A and the 
cover B can be drilled there- 
with. By arranging the jig in 
the manner shown in the 
sectional side elevations, Fig- 
ures 256 and 257, it can be 
used for drilling each part 
as though it were made 
rtg. 255. specially for that part. 




314 



THE MODERN MACHINIST. 



f 

A m 



a 



^JB 



In Figure 256 A A represents the work (plate) and C 
the jig inserted therein ready for 
the operation, a b representing 
the guide bushings which are 
the same as those shown in 
Figure 254. In Figure 257 
the work (cover) B is shown 
in position ready to be 
drilled. 

The compounding of drill- 
ing jigs can be almost 
universally applied with a 
certainty of success. But the 
system should not be carried 
to an extreme where real 
economy ceases to exist; or, 
other words, it may not infrequently be more 
economical and advantageous to jig the parts 
separately. Still, as shown by the foregoing examples, 
whenever it is possible at a slight additional expense 
to construct the jigs so that they can be utilized for 
drilling both parts of the work, greater economy 
and accuracy can be readily secured thereby. 



A 



in 




i 



Figs. 256 and 257. 



315 



INDEX 



PAGE. 

Adjustable pivot pin, chucking plate . . 125 

Adjusting- tools in cutter heads 172 

Adjustment, novel, of lathe tool 250 

Aligning boiler in traction engines 71 

Aligning shafting 63 

Arbor for turning packing rings 190 

Arbor used in turning cylinders 235 

Arbor, work planed on 129 

Armatures, balancing ways for 112 

Assembling fitted engine parts 92 

Attachment, planer, for concave and 

convex work 135 

Automatic milling machines 143 

Axes of revolving engine parts 94 

Axle box, measuring, simple means of 283 
Axle for main road wheels, traction 

engine 86 

Babbitted bearing linings, expanding. 192 
Babbitt linings, roller tool for finishing 105 
Babbitt metal, for chucking bases. . . 184 

Babbitting mandrel 81 

Babbitting mandrel jig 101 

Balancing pulleys and rotary parts 110 

Balancing ways, simple Ill 

Ball and socket joints, how made 176 

Ball turning 208 

Ball turning, tool rest for 209 

Bars, measuring 23 

Beading tools 53 

Beam calipers 23 

Bearing linings, expanding 192 

Bearings, circular, measuring 283 

Bearings, roller, in lathe work 194 

Bearings, semicircular, how bored out 175 

Bearings, swivel 174 

Bearings, crank shaft 79 

Bearings, crank shaft, reaming 85 

Bed plate boring, special appliance for 103 

Bed plate, center-crank engine 95 

Bed plates, engine machining 95 

Bedplates, engine, making ready foi 

planing 95 

Bed plates, stationary engine 94 

Belts, gluing joints of SOT 

Bevel gauge for setting lathe 246 

Boiler, aligning in traction engines .... 70 

Axle and over shaft, aligning 89 

Blocked up 72 

Getting center line on 73 

Inverted in construction 71 

Jigs for 90 

Longitudinal alignment of 74 

Transverse alignment of 74 



PAGE. 

Bolts, headed, turning and threading. 272 
Boring and drilling attachment, lathe. 170 
Boring and turning on a monitor chuck 179 

Boring and turning cylinders 234 

Boring and turning pulleys at one 

operation 217 

Boring bars for boring spherical holes. 174 
Boring attachment, simple, for any 

lathe 249 

Boring bar, feeding, in lathe 220 

Boring "'rig," special, for fitting engine 

cylinders on bed 103 

Boring tool cutter har, a special 169 

Boring tools for a lathe 168 

Boring crank pin holes, the right way of 226 

Boring hole for crank pin 228 

Box tools for lathe work 269 

Brackets for chucking work 238 

Brackets, engine cylinder 77 

Brackets for setting shafting 61 

Brass, how fast to cut in a lathe 165 

Brasses, boring and turning on a moni- 
tor chuck 180 

Brasses, connecting rod, planing 121 

Bronze finishing 53 

Matted surfaces 55 

Practical instructions in 56 

Relief work 54 

Toolsfor 53 

Bulllathes 205 

Burnishers 53 

Bushings in fitting crank bearings ... 100 
Bushings, boring and turning . . . 259-260 

Bushings, split, placing together 259 

Bushings, tapered, finishing 262 

Calipers, micrometer ... 24 

Adjustable 25 

Inside 24 

Calipers, odd -legged, use of 282 

Cams and cam motions in turning. ... 252 

Cams, chucking and turning 257 

Cam shaft turning 255 

Car axle body turning 204 

Car wheel tires, allowance for shrink- 
age in boring 227 

Castings, internal strains of 115 

Castings, changing shapes of 50 

Remedying imperfections in 50 

Cast-iron mandrels to turn pulleys on. 213 
Cast-iron, cutting speed for, in lathes. 165 

Cement in machine foundations 69 

Center-crank engine bed plates 95 

Chaser tools for threading taps 269 



. 



316 



INDEX. 



PAGE. I 

Chasing 53 

Beading tools 53 

Chaser's punch tools 53 

Matting tools 53 

Planishers 53 

Practical instructions in 56 

Tracers 53 

"Work done by 54-55 

Check valves, chucking . . . 184 

Chipping off ribs, etc., in fitting cylin- 
der brackets 77 

Chips, clearing cutter teeth of 1 60 

Chisel, " Cape " 76 

Cross-cut 76 

Drift 76 

Chucking work 115 

Adjustable pivot pin for chucking 

plate 126 

Boring and turning pulleys simul- 
taneously, chuck for 216 

Chuck for work on bushings 261 

Chuck, special, for turning cylin- 
ders 236 

Chuck, special, for tapered bush- 
ings 262 

Chucking block, box -shaped, for 

engine beds 130 

Chucking piece, semicircular 120 

Chucking brackets, independent. 219 

Chucking plates 117 

Chucking plates, supplementary.. 123 
Chucking pulleys on mandrels. . . 214 

Chuck, the monitor 120 

Chucking with monitor chuck on 

lathe 182 

Chucking brackets, adjustable.... 238 

Chucking rings hinged. .. 236 

Chucking large work in latbe 239 

Circular turning tool on holder . . . 267 

Clamping fixture 115 

Clamping to avoid strains 115 

Compound chucking plates 124 

Connecting rod key, chucking 119 

Connecting rod chucked between 

centers 133 

Crank shaft, engine, chucking . . . 1*7 

Cross head, chucking 122 

Eccentric chucked on sliding lathe 

chuck 198 

Grooving chuck jaws 117 

Inserting chucking plates 117 

Jaws, chuck, adjustable 119 

Milling machine, chucking for. .. 150 
Pulley chucked on sliding lathe 

chuck 197 

Re-chucking avoided in milling. . 146 

Sliding lathe chucks 196 

Special chucking devices 118 

Springing of work in 115 

Swiveling chucking plate 125 

Taper work chucking 119 

Thin work chucking 117 

Use of chucking tools on a lathe. 167 

Clamping fixture of planer 115 

Clamping work to platen 115 

Collar gauge, the, in turning and boring 279 



PAGE. 

Composition for imbedding work in 

chasing 57 

Compression clamp for use in turning 

packing rings 189 

Concave and convex planing 134 

Connecting rod brasses, planing 121 

Connecting rod key, chucking 119 

Connecting rod, planing butt ends 

of 138 

Connecting rod strap, milling 154 

Countersunk headed bolt, turning and 

threading 271 

Cramping of shafts or wrist pins, pre- 
venting 174 

Crank center block in turning crank 

shaft 223 

Crank, method of working on shown. 221 
Crank, shrinking together a double 

built-up 225 

Crank pin holes, boring on lathe.. .. 170 
Crank pin holes, errors of boring, in 

ordinary p actice 226 

Crank pin, locating 128 

Crank pins worn or 6prung, truing 

up i 232 

Crank shaft bearings 79 

Crank shaft bearing, appliances for 

fitting 98 

Crank shaft bearing, babbitting plug. 79 
Crank shaft bearings, babbitting .... 99 
Crank shaft bearings, bushings in 

fitting 100 

Crank shaft rest in turning 2*3 

Crank shaft pin, work on 222 

Crank shaft, engine, chucking 127 

Crank shaft, key ways, planing 127 

Crank shaft, pillow block 81 

Cranks, adjusting or setting 230 

Cranks, built up . . 224 

Cranks, heating before bhrinking 231 

Cranks, shrinking together 230 

Cranks, turning 221 

Cross heads, boring and turning on a 

monitor chuck 181 

Cross heads, planing 121 

Cross heads, removing piston rods 

from 109 

Crown-faced pulleys, turning 205 

Curved surfaces, turning 208 

Cutter bar, improved, for lathe boring 168 
Cutter heads, different forms of. ... . 173 

Cutters, circular, for turning 266 

Cutter heads, holding cutters in : 172 

Cutter teeth, milling machines, work 

of 143 

Cutter teeth, in milling, for different 

metals . . 144 

Cylinder, chucking, for turning 235 

Cylinders, boring and turning 234 

Cylinder brackets, aligning and locat- 
ing in engines 74 

Chipping off chipping pieces, ribs, 

etc .... 76 

Cylinders, chucking 129 

Cylinder, engine, bolting on bed 103 

Cylinder, traction engine, fixing in 

position ?8. 



INDEX. 



317 



PAGE. 

Die plates, details of exact work on . . 201 
Die plates, etc., spacing holes in.. 199, 2S4 

Double eye of reach rod, milling 157 

Double face milling 151 

Double gang milling, novel 145 

Drift chisel 76 

Drift jig 43 

In engine work 43 

Drifts 41 

For brass and composition 41 

For cast iron 41 

For wrought iron and steel 41 

In cutting key ways 42 

Drift pin and drift wedge 109 

Drill, holding, in lathe 171 

Drilling 309 

Drilling, economically locating holes 

for 811 

Drillingjigs, compounding 314 

Driving fits, in cranks 224 

Driving shaft, traction engine, locat- 
ing 91 

Eccentric and valve connections, in- 
terchangeable 102 

Eccentric chucked on sliding lathe 

chuck 198 

Eccentric used in place of former in 

irregular work 253 

Eccentrics, holding while turning 199 

Eccentric used in turning crank shafts 223 
Emery coating on leather-faced wheels307 

Emery wheels, speed of 291 

Engines, stationary, erecting 94 

Axes, relation of 94 

Babbitting crank shaft bearings . 98 

Babbitting mandrel jig 101 

Balancing pulleys and rotary parts 1 10 

Bedplates of 94 

Bed plate boring and facing ap- 
pliances 103 

Bedplate, center- crank engine. .. 95 
Boring " rig " for fitting cvlinder 

on bed 103 

Bushings in crank fitting bear- 
ings 100 

Crank pins, refitting 234 

Crank shaft axis 94 

Crank shaft bearing, appliances 

for fitting 98 

Cylinder, bolting on bed 103 

Drift pin and drift wedge em- 
ployed 109 

Eccentric and valve connections, 

interchangeable 102 

Jig for work on vertical engine. .. 107 

Machining bed plates 95 

Mandrel for crank bearings, loca- 
ting 99 

Metal, faulty surface in, favoring. 95 
Piston rods, removing from cross- 
heads 109 

Planing beds, making ready for.. 95 

Platen on erecting floor 98 

Roller tool for finishing babbitt 

linings 105 

Rotary parts, balancing 110 



Engines, etc—Continued. page. 

Shaft, flexible, for driving boring 

jig 105 

Slide and bearing, fitting jig for. . 102 

Trams, wire, use of 96 

Types and parts of 94 

Valve stem slide connection 102 

Vertical engine work ... 106 

Engine, traction, erecting 70 

Aligning boiler 70 

Assembling fitted parts 92 

Axle and over shaft, aligning 89 

Axle for main road wheels 86 

Babbitting mandrel 81 

Bearing babbitting plug 79 

Chipping off ribs, etc., in fitting. . 76 

Crankshaft bearing 79 

Crank shaft pillow block bl 

Cylinder brackets, aligning and 

locating 74 

Cylinder brackets, bolting to 

boiler 78 

Cylinder placing • • • 78 

Cylinder testing 78 

Driving shaft, locating 91 

Engine frame, chucking 241 

Fitting traction mechanism .... 85 
Inverting boiler for erecting .... 70 

Jigs for aligning axle 89 

Jig for crank shaft boxes 83 

Jig for fitting traction mechanism 87 
Jigs for locating mandrels in fit- 
ting axle boxes 90 

Jigs for locating side shafts 91 

Reaming crank bearings 85 

Rotary parts, balancing 110 

Slide bars, the vertical 86 

Tramming to test jig 90 

Engine beds, chucking 129 

Engine beds, horizontal, planing 130 

Engine bed-plate, center crank 95 

Engine beds, vertical, planing 129 

Engine, connecting rod, lining up . . . 86 

Engine frames, templates for 34 

Engine shaft governors 126 

Engine work, drift jig in 43 

English method of dispensing with 

former in lathe work 258 

Erecting machinery, etc 59 

Foundation for 98 

Tools for . , 59 

Erecting, novel appliances for bed- 
plate boring 103 

Erecting traction engine 70 

Stationary engines - 94 

Expanding linings, tools for 192 

Face or " end " milling 149 

Face plate parallels 287 

Facet and surface milling 147 

Facet grinding, device for 800 

Face plate, extending diameter of 195 

Facing and bed-plate boring appliances 108 

Faulty metal surfaces, favoring 95 

Feed, automatic, on tail spindle 241 

Feeds, lathe, coarse and fine 166 

Feed motion in milling work 148 



318 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Fifty-foot lathe, a, employing nine 

carriages 264 

Finishing cuts in lathe 166 

Finishing wheels in polishing 307 

Fitting crank shaft bearings 98 

Fluting taps in the lathe 289 

Formers to continuously change posi- 
tion of planer tool 134 

Formers, adjusting tracer arm with . . . 255 
Formeri for turning curved surfaces . . 203 
Former attachment, Sellers' taper 

turning 244 

Formers for all irregular work 256 

Former, fixing on lathe slide 206 

Former turning attachment, ridges 

made by 254 

Former turning 253 

Foundations, machine 69 



Gang lathes 

Gang lathes, setting two to handle 

long work 

Gate valves, chucking .... 

Gauge for planing V's and V ways. . . 

Gauges, plug and disc 

Gauges, ring or collar 

Gauges, standard, importance of 

Gauges 

Adjustable for wear 

Double 

For inside measuring 

Not patented ... 

Proving 

Snap 

That cannot be tampered with. . . 

Gear blanks, milling 

Gear, rawhide 

Globe valves, chucking 

Governors, shaft, engine 

Graduated planer head 

Graduated rules 

Grinding aod polishing 

Driving of grinding wheel 

Emery belts, round and flat 

Emery coated leather-faced wheels 

Emery wheels, speed of 

Facet grinding, device for 

Finishing wheels 

Grinding attachment, universal.. 

Grinding edges of thin work 

Grinders employed on lathes . 

Grinder for cylindrical work 

Grinding high velocity 

Grinding internal surfaces 

Grinding twist drills 

Grinding wheel and work table. . . 

Grinding wheels, holding on arbor 
or spindle 

Parallel work, grinding 

Plane surfaces, grinding 

Polishing by grinding 

Polishing with leather- faced wheel 

Wheels, small, made of scraps of 

large wheels 

Grindstone, the, for roughing out 

work 

Grooving and fluting in the lathe 



259 



1S4 

137 

277 

279 

275 

26 

27 

31 

80 

31 

31 

26 

19 

161 

157 

184 

126 

139 

23 

291 

292 

307 

307 

291 

300 

307 



295 
309 
298 

295 
301 
297 
306 



295 



306 

290 



PAGE. 

Guide shaft in fitting crank bearings. . 100 
Gun plates, drifts for filing up 88 

Hand-fed tool, the, in lathe work 208 

Head stocks of lathes, different, in for- 
eign countries 244 

Heating of metal in lathe a cause of 

uneven work 226 

High velocity grinding, evils of 299 

Hinged chucking rings 237 

Hollow spindle lathes 259 

Horizontal engines 94 

Horizontal engine beds, planing 130 

Imbedding work in chasing 57 

Imperfections, remedying 49 

Interchangeable parts 113 

Internal double-face milling 153 

Internal surfaces grinding 295 

Irregular work, turning 256 

Items of interest 282 

Jarring and jumping of work, pre- 
venting 239 

Jigs 85 

Aligning and locating 85 

Drilling 85 

Filing 87 

For filing up gun plates 38 

For crank shaft boxes 83 

For locating mandrels in fitting 

axle boxes 90 

For traction engine mechanism.. 87 

For locating side shaft 91 

For locating babbitting mandrel . . 101 

. For fitting slide and bearings 102 

For rocker arms or shafts 102 

For vertical engine work 107 

For lathe work 113 

Jig-, a novel use of 313 

Jigs for aligning axle 89 

Jig for drilling separate pieces of 

work 312 

Lining up engine connecting rod 

with 86 

On experimental work 40 

Special 114 

Split hubs for jigs and mandrels . . 93 

Tramming to test jig 90 

Journals, spheroidal, bearings of. 176 

Keys and key seats 45 

Key, connecting rod, chucking 119 

Key- way cutting on planer 131 

Labor, unskilled, to attend milling 

machines 143 

Lathe beds, milling 145 

Lathe hand, a skillful 165 

Lathe, the 163 

Adjustable chucking brackets 238 

Attachment for taper work, sim- 
ple 249 

Ball and socket joints, work on . . 176 

Ball turning 208 

Bars, boring, for making spheri- 
cal holes 1T4 



[NDEX. 



31<J 



Lathe— Continued. page. 

Boring and turning cylinders '234 

Boring and turning pulleys 219 

Boring and drilling attachment. ..170 

Boring har, feeding the 219 

Boring and turning on a monitor 

chuck 179 

Boring out semicircular bearings 176 

Boring tools for 103 

Boring tool cutter bar 169 

Box tools, improvements in use 

of 271 

Brackets, independent, for chuck- 
ing 219 

Built up cranks 2'24 

"Bull "lathes 205 

Bushings, boring and turning. . . 259 

Car axle body turning 204 

Chucking tapered bushings 262 

Chucking engine frame 243 

Chucking crank discs 224 

Chucking «ylinder for turning. . . 235 

Chucking and turning cams 257 

Chucking bases, special 184 

Circular cutters 265 

Circular threading tool 268 

Compression clamp for use in 

turning packing rings 1S9 

Crank, a double built up, work on 225 

Crank pin, truing up 232 

Crank-center block, use of 223 

Crank in working position in 

lathe 222 

Crank pin hole, boring 2^8 

Cranks, turning 221 

Crown faced pulleys, turning 205 

Curved surface turning 203 

Cutter heads 171 

Cutter, circular, on holder 267 

Die plates' boring 200 

Driving of grinding wheel 292 

Eccentric chucked on sliding lathe 

chuck 198 

Eccentrics, holding while turning 199 
Face plate, extending diameter of 195 

Former turning 252 

Former, fixing on slide 205 

Gang lathes 259 

Gang lathes, setting two to handle 

long work 263 

Grinding on the lathe 29 1 

Hand-fed tool, the 208 

Head stocks, nine, employed on 

one bed 264 

Head stocks, different, in foreign 

countries 244 

Hinged chucking rings, use of. . . 237 
Hollow live spindle lathe ....... 262 

Hollow spindle lathe 259 

Large work revolved in lathe. . .. 240 
Lathe tool, adjusting, author's 

method 250 

Live spindle, support for 194 

Metal heating the cause of uneven 

work 226 

Ordinary and special forms of. . . 163 
Packing rings arbor for turning. 190 
Packing rings, turning and boring 186 



Lathe— Continued. page. 

Parallels, face plate 287 

Piston rods, setting lathes on 247 

Pulley chucked on sliding lathe 

chuck 197 

Pulleys, turning and boring 211 

Kest for crank shaft in turning. . . 223 

Koller bearings 194 

Roughing and finishing cuts 166 

Setting lathe to turn tapers 245 

Shrinkage allowances, rule for... 227 

Sliding lathe chucks 196 

Speed to run on different metals. 165 
Spindles, lining up, a special 

method for 173 

Spiral spring making in lathe . . 288 
Strains in lathe work, minimiz- 
ing 194 

Studs, bolts, or pin, work on 164 

Supporting overhanging tool, a 

novel method 223 

Tail spindle, automatic feed on . . . 241 

Taps, fluting, in the lathe 289 

Tool rest, sliding, for ball turning 210 
Turning and boring tapers . ... 244 
Turning cvlinders, special chuck 

for... .: 236 

Turning pin of solid crank 221 

Turning and boring pulleys at one 

operation 21 5 

Turning shafting on 164 

Use of eccentric in turning crank 

shafts 223 

Use of eccentric instead of former 253 

Use of chucking tools on 167 

Valves, chucking 184 

"Wide range of lathe work 163 

"Work on split bushings 260 

Lathe foot stock, gauge for planing . . 137 

Lathes, small, setting 69 

Lathe work, jigs for 113 

Laying out work on large pieces .... 95 

Lead for chucking bases 184 

Leather-faced wood polishing wheel . . 306 
Leveling shafting, special method of. . 63 

Line shaft, setting 64 

Extending through a wall 65 

Lining up lathe spindles 178 

Live spindle, a hollow '. 262 

Locomotive type, traction engine, 

erecting 70 

Lost motion, taking up 239 



Machinist, an average 

Machining engine bed-plates 
Machine tools, placing in the shop ... 
Machine vs. hand ground twist drills. 
Machinery, moving and setting 

Aligning by straight edge and 
level 

Allowing for countershafts, 
cranes, etc 

Device for moving heavy ma- 
chines 

Engine erecting, stationary 

Engine erecting, traction 

Foundations 

Lathes, small, setting 



165 
95 

07 
Sin 



320 



INDEX. 



Machinery— Continued. page. 

Plan drawings important 67 

Positions of machine tools 60 

Mandrel, babbitting 81 

Mandrel, cast iron, to turn large pul- 
leys on 213 

Mandrels and jigs,split hubs for 93 

Mandrel for turning bushings 260 

Mandrel, special forms of, for pulley 

work 213 

Mandrel, use of the, in turning pulleys 212 

Matting tools ... 53 

Measuring instruments 23 

Gauges, inside and outside 26 

Adjustable 26 

Calipers, odd-legged 282 

Collar gauge, novel form of. . . 281 

Disc gauge, handle for 278 

Disc gauges, in sets. 276 

Double 31 

Graduated rules 23 

Graduated beam calipers 23 

With "Vernier" adjustment. 23 

Micrometer calipers 23 

Inside 24 

Plug and disc gauges 277 

Plug gauges, grooving and drill- 
ing 277 

Ring or collar gauges. ... . , . 279 

SiMp. 26 

Standard gauges, importance of. 275 
Test bars, hardened and ground 286 

Metal, faulty surface in, Coring 95 

Metal shrinking in place does not take 

original shape 227 

Micrometer calipers . 24 

Inside and outside 24 

Milling machines, adaptability of 142 

Milling key seats of crank shafts 128 

Milling practice, modern ... 142 

Automatic milling machines 143 

Chips, clearing cutter teeth of. . . 160 
Chuck, special for milling ma- 
chine 1 50 

Composition gear 158 

Connecting rod strap, milling. . . . 154 
Cutters and chucking exactly 

adapted for work 161 

Cutter teeth, work of 143 

Cutter teeth for different metals . . 144 
Double eye of reach rod, milling. . ]57 

Double face milling 152 

Double gang milling, special ar- 
rangement for 145 

Face milling 149 

Facet and surface milling 147 

Feed motion, regulating 148 

Gear blanks, milling 161 

Internal double face milling 153 

Introduction of improvements in 143 
Pulleys, sheave and flange, mill- 
ing 161 

Quick return motion 145 

Rawhide gear 157 

Roughing and finishing at one 

operation 145 

Slab mills, small, use of 153 

Speed of cutters 144 



Milling practice— Continued. pags. 

Twin face mills in pairs 156 

Twin or " straddle " mill practice 151 
Vertical spindle milling device. . . 147 
Wide scope of work of milling 

machines 142 

Monitor chuck, the 120 

Moving heavy machines 68 

Packing rings, arbor for turning ... . 190 
Packing rings, turning and boring. . . 186 
Paper cutter knives, etc., grinding. . . 303 

Parallel work, grinding 30 L 

Parting tool, double-tongued .186 

Peening and straightening metal 50 

Pillow blocks, boring out 174 

Pillow block, crank shaft 81 

Pin of solid crank, turning 221 

Pipe, flanged, jigged for drilling 312 

Piston rods, removing from cross heads 109 

Piston rods, setting lathes on 248 

Piston rod, taper shank, turning 246 

Pit lathe work, roller bearings in .... 194 
Pivot pin, adjustable, for chucking 

plate 125 

Planer centers, holding work between 133 

Plane surfaces, grinding 297 

Planing engine beds, making ready 

for 95 

Planing, shaping, slotting 115 

Adjustable chuck jaws 119 

Adjustable pivot pin for chucking 

plate. 125 

Arbor, work planed on 126 

Chucking connecting-rod key 119 

Chucking piece, semicircular 120 

Chucking plates, supplementary. 123 

Chucking taper work ... 119 

Chucking thin work 116 

Chucking to avoid strains 115 

Clamping, errors in 116 

Clamping fixture 115 

Compound chucking plates 124 

Concave and convex work, planing 134 
Connecting rod brasses, planing . . 121 

Cross heads, planing 121 

Engine frames, vertical, planing. . 129 
Formers to change position of tool 134 

Graduated planer head 139 

Grooving chuck jaws 117 

Inserting chucking plates 117 

Key way cutting on planer 131 

Key seat, fixing 126 

Key ways, arank shaft, planing. , 126 
Milling device adapted to planing 

machine 147 

Monitor chuck, the 120 

Planer attachment for work on 
concave and convex surfaces. . . 135 

Planing V's and V ways 137 

Polishing by grinding 306 

Polygonal work, planing 134 

Special chucking devices 118 

Springing of work in 115 

Strains from faulty planing 116 

Stud bolts and nuts for planer work 139 

Swiveling chucking plate 125 

Planishers 53 



INDEX. 



321 



PACK. 

platen, planer, clamping work to .... 115 
Platen, Moor, for erecting foundation . . 98 

Plug and disc ganges 277 

Polishing with leather fared wheel.... 806 

Polishing wheels, finishing 307 

Pulley boring and turning simultane- 
ously... 217 

Pulley chucked on sliding lathe chuck. 1!>7 

Pulleys, balancing no 

Pulleys, crown faced turning 2o5 

Pulleys, all diameters of, chucking.. . 219 
Pulleys, light and heavy boring and 

turning 2' 9 

Pulleys, sheave and flange, milling . . 101 
Pulleys, special machines for making 211 

Pull- ys, turning and boring 164, 211 

Pulleys, turning on mandrel 212 

Pump cylinder linings, expanding 192 

Rawhide gear in milling machines 157 

Reamers and taps, expanding 26 

Reaming crank shaft bearings 85 

Reciprocating parts, relations of 94 

Relief work in bronze and composition 54 
Rings, packing, turning and boring.. 186 

Rocker arms or shaft jigs 102 

Roller bearings k> lathe work 194 

Roller tool for finishing babbitt liniugs 105 

Rotary parts, balancing 110 

Rotary parts, balancing ways for 112 

Roughing cuts in lathe 1 66 

Rule for allowar ce in making fits .... 224 

Seams, inserting pieces in 48 

Semicircular bearings, boring out 176 

Setting a series of lathe heads on a 

same bed 263 

Shafts, flexible for driving boring rig. 105 

Shaft governors, engine 126 

Shafting, turning on" a lathe . . 164 

Shafting, setting 1 or lining . . 60 

Excellent devices for 61 

Extending through a wall 65 

Leveling, special'method of 63 

Resetting or relining 62 

Spirit level not reliable for 60 

Use of straight edge and spirit 

level for 62 

Use of transit level in 60 

Shaping and slotting 115 

Shrinking cranks together 230 

Shrinkage fits, in cranks 2^5 

Simple and compound chucking plates 123 

Slab milling 155 

Slide and bearing fitting jig 102 

Slide bars, traction engine 86 

Slide rest, auxiliary, in turning piston 

rods 248 

Slide rest, compound, a novel 251 

Sliding fits, in cranks 2^4 

Sliding grinder head on planer 30 1 

Sliding lathe chucks 196 

Slotting machine for work on internal 

Surfaces 141 

Slotting machines, working several 

pieces together on 141 

Slotting machine iD cutting key ways. 132 



PAGK. 

Slotter, method of holding work on . . . 132 
Spacing holes with odddegged calipers 285 

8 peed of milling cutters 144 

Spelter for chucking bases 184 

Spherical holes, boring 174 

Spherical turning 208 

Spindles, lathe, lining up 178 

Split bushings, work on 260 

Springs, spiral, making in lathe 288 

Springing of work in chucking 115 

Stationary engine 94 

Avoiding strains in work on 115 

Bed plates of 94 

Chuck, the monitor, for 120 

Inserting chucking plates in work 

on 115 

Machining bed plates of 95 

Types and parts of 94 

Steel, how fast to cut in a lathe. .... 165 

Straddle mills in milling 151 

Strains from improper planing ... 116 

Strains in lathe work, minimizing ... 194 
Stud bolts and nuts for planer work . . 139 
Studs, bolts, orpins workingin a lathe 164 

Sulphur in machine foundations 69 

Surface milling with vertical spindle 

device 147 

Surfaces to be machined, laying out 

work on * 95 

S wiveling chucking plate 125 

Taper parallels in cutting key ways. . . 132 

Tapers, turning and boring 24.i 

Taper turning and boring attachment 

for any lathe 249 

Tapers laid off by bevel gauge 247 

Taps and reamers, expanding 26 

Templates 34 

For engine frames 34 

Test bars, hardened and ground 286 

Thrashing machines, balancing ways 

for rotary parts of 112 

Threading tool, circular point 268 

Tires, car wheel, why they work loose 227 
Tool for making spiral springs in lathe 288 

Tool support in lathe, a novel 223 

Tools for expanding linings 192 

Tool rest, double slide compound . . . 205 

Tool rest for ball turning 209 

Tool rest, sliding for ball turning 210 

Tracers 53 

Tracer arm, adjusting with formers. . 255 
Tracer arm, fixed point or roller on .. 258 

Tramming to test jigs 00 

Tramming with wire trams. . . 96 

Trams for lining up lathe spindles 179 

Transit level for lining shafting .... 60 

Traversing cuts on the lathe 266 

Truing up crank pins, simple method 

for 232 

Turning and boring-, setting work for. 257 
Turning attachment for any lathe, 

simple 249 

Turning irregular forms 252 

Turning large work in lathe 239 

Turning tapers, how it ia done in 

foreign countries 245 



322 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Turning tapers, setting lathe for 245 

Turning and boring packing rings 186 

Turning and boring pulleys 211 

Turning curved surfaces ... 203 

Turning, spherical 208 

Turning work with sliding lathe 

chucks 197 

Twist drills 309 

Universal grinding attachment 293 

Unskilled labor on milling machines.. 143 

"Valve and eccentric connections, inter- 
changeable 102 

Valve stem slide connection 102 

Valves, chucking for work on lathe. .. 184 

" Vernier " adjustment, the 23 

Vertical engine work 106 

Vertical engine work jig 107 

Vertical engine frames, planing 129 

Vertical surfaces, internal, milling 153 

Vertical spindle milling device 147 

Visework 33 

Drift jig 43 

Cast-iron work changing shapes of 50 

Imperfections, remedying 49 

In engine work 43 



Vise work— Continued. page. 

Keys and key seats '. 45 

Peening and straightening metal . 50 

Seams, inserting pieces in 48 

Drifts 41 

For brass and composition 41 

For cast-iron 41 

For wrought-iron and steel 41 

In cutting key wavs 42 

Jigs " 35 

Aligning and locating 35 

Drilling 35 

Filing 37 

For filing up gun plates 38 

Lining up engine rod with 36 

On experimental work 40 

Templates 34 

For engine frames 34 

V ways, planing . 13S 

"Wall, extending a shaft through 65 

Wire trams .... 97 

Wood polishing wheel, leather-faced. . 306 

Work, large, revolved in lathe 240 

Work table for use with grinding wheel 298 

Work tables, planing . .< 123 

Working fits, in cranks 224 

Wrought iron, speed to run lathes on. 16* 



Scientific -"<• Practical Books 

PUBLISHED BY 
NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 
U2 Nassau St., New York, U. S. A. 



J^° Any of these books will be seut prepaid on receipt of 
price to any address in the world. 

^~ T .Ve will send FREE to any address in the world our 100-page 
Catalogue of Scientific and Practical Books. 



Askinson. Perfumes and Tbeir Preparation. A Com- 
prehensive Treatise on Perfumery : 

Containing complete directions for making Handker- 
chief Perfumes, Smelling Salts, Sachets, Fumigating 
Pastils ; Preparations for the Care of the Skin, the 
Mouth, the Hair ; Cosmetics, Hair Dyes, and other 
Toilet Articles. 300 Pages. 32 illustrations. 8vo. 
Cloth $3.00 

Barr. Catecbism on tbe Combustion of Coal and the 
Prevention of Smoke : 

A practical treatise for all interested in fuel econ- 
omy and the suppression of smoke from stationary 
steam boiler furnaces and from locomotives. 85 illus- 
trations. 12mo. 349 Pages. Cloth $1.50 

Blackall. Air-Brake Catechism : 

This book is a complete studj 7 of the air brake 
equipment, including the latest devices and inventions 
used. All parts of the air brake, their troubles and 
peculiarities, and a practical way to find and remedy 
them, are explained. This book contains 1500 questions 
with their answers, and is completely illustrated by En- 
gravings and Twelve Large Folding Plates of the Westing- 
house Quick-Action Automatic Brake, and also the 9J4- 
inch Improved Air Pump. 305 Pages. Handsomely bound 

in Cloth. Eighteenth Edition $2.00 

Grimsbaw. Saw Filing and Management of Saws: 

A practical handbook on filing, gumming, swaging, 
hammering and the brazing of band saws, the speed, 
work and power to run circular saws, etc., etc., Fully 

illustrated. Cloth $1.00 

Grimsbaw. "Shop Kinks": 

This book is entirely different from any other on 
machine-shop practice. It is not descriptive of univer- 
sal or common shop usage, but shows special ways of 
doing work better, more cheaply and more rapidly than 
usual, as done in fifty or more leading shops in Europe 



NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 'S PUBLICATIONS. 

and America. Ecrue of its over 500 items and 222 il- 
lustrations are contributed directly for its pages by emi- 
nent constructors ; tbe rest bave been gathered by tbe 
author in his Thirty Years' Travel and Experience. 
Second Edition. Nearly 400 Pages and 222 illustra- 
tions. Cloth $2.50 

Grimsbaw. Engine Runner's Catechism: 

Telling how to erect, adjust and run the principal 
steam engines in the United States. Describing tbe 
principal features of various special and well-known 
makes of engines. Fourth Edition. 336 Pages. Fully 
illustrated. Cloth $2.00 

^rimshaw. Steam Engine Catechism: 

A series of direct practical answers to direct prac- 
tical questions, mainly intended for young engineers 
and for examination questions. Nearly 1,000 questions 
with their answers. Twelfth Edition. 413 Pages. 
Fully Illustrated. Cloth < . . . $2.00 

Grimshaw. Locomotive Catechism: 

This is a veritable Encyclopaedia of the Locomotive, 
is entirely free from mathematics, and thoroughly 
up to date. It contains 1,600 Questions with their 
Answers. Twenty-second Edition, greatly enlarged. 
Nearly 450 Pages, over 200 illustrations, and 12 Large 
Folding Plates. Bound in Maroon Cloth $2.00 

Hiscox. Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines: 

Full of general information about the new and popu- 
lar motive power, its economy and ease of management. 
Also chapters on Horseless Vehicles, Electric Lighting, 
Marine Propulsion, etc. Special chapters on Theory 
of the Gas and Gasoline Engine, Utilization of Heat 
and Efficiency of Gas Engines, Retarded Combustion 
and Wall Cooling, Causes of Loss and Inefficiency in 
Explosive Motors, Economy of the Gas Engine for 
Electric Lighting, The Material of Power in Explosive 
Engines. Carbureters, Cylinder Capacity, Mufflers, 
Governors, Igniters and Exploders, Cylinder Lubrica- 
tors, The Measurement of Power, The Indicator and 
its Work, Heat Efficiencies, U. S. Patents on Gas, 
Gasoline and Oil Engines and their adjuncts since 
1875, etc. 412 Pages. Large Octavo, illustrated with 
312 Handsome Engravings. Tenth Edition, Revised 
and Enlarged. Buckram $2.50 

Hiscox. Compressed Air In All its Applications: 

Giving the thermodynamics, compression, transmis- 
sion, expansion, and uses for power purposes in mining 
and engineering work ; pneumatic motors, shop-tools, 
air-blasts for cleaning and painting, air-lifts, pump- 
ing of water, acids and oils : aeration and purification 
of water supply, railway propulsion, pneumatic tube 
transmission, refrigeration and numerous appliances 



NORMAN W. HENLEY ,& CO. S PUBLICATIONS. 



in which compressed air is a most convenient and eco- 
nomical vehicle for work — with tables of compression, 
expansion and the physical properties of air. Large 
octavo. 800 Pages. »'><>o illustrations. Fourth Kdi- 

tion, Revised. Price $5.00 

Hiscox. Horseless Vehicles, Automobiles and Motor 

Cycles, Operated by Steam, Hydro-Carbon, Electric 

and Pneumatic motors: 

The make-up and management of Automobile Ve- 
hicles of all kinds are treated. It also contains a com- 
plete list of the Automohile and Motor Manufacturers 
with their addresses as well as a list of patents issued 
since 1856 on the Antomohile industry. Nineteen Chap- 
ters. Large 8vo. 310 illustrations. 460 Pages. Cloth. $3.00 
Hiscox. Mechanical Movements, Powers, Devices 

and Appliances: 

This is a new work on Illustrated Mechanics, Me- 
chanical Movements, Devices and Appliances, cover- 
ing nearly the whole range of the practical and inven- 
tive field, for the use of Mechanics, Inventors, Engi- 
neers, Draughtsmen, and all others interested in any 
way in mechanics. Large 8vo. Over 400 Pages. 1,800 
Specially Made Illustrations, with Descriptive Text. 
Tenth Edition $3.00 

Inventors' Manual; How to Make a Patent Pay: 

This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in per- 
fecting their inventions, taking out their patents and 
disposing of them. 119 Pages. New Edition. Cloth.. $1.00 
Krauss. Linear Perspective Self-Taught : 

The underlying principle by which objects may be 
correctly represented in perspective is clearly set forth 
in this book, everything relating to the subject is shown 
in suitable diagrams, accompanied by full explanations 

in the text. Price $2.50 

lie Van. Safety Valves; Their History, Invention and 
Calculation : 

Illustrated by 69 Engravings. 151 Pages $1.50 

Parsell & \Ye~d. Gas Engine Construction : 

A practical treatise describing the theory and prin- 
ciples of the action of gas engines of various types, 
and the design and construction of a half-horse power 
Gas engine, with illustrations of the work in actual 
progress, together with dimensioned working drawings, 
giving clearly the sizes of the various details. Second 
Edition Revised and Enlarged. 25 Chapters. Large 
8vo. Handsomely Illustrated and Bound. 300 Pages. $2.50 

Reagan, Jr. Electrical Engineers' and Students' Chart 
and Handbook of the Brush Arc Light System : 

Illustrated. Bound in Cloth, with Celluloid Chart 
in Pocket. 8vo. <loth $1.00 



NORMAN W. HENIvEY & CO. 'S PUBLICATIONS. 



Sloane. Electricity Simplified : 

The object of "Electricity Simplified" is to make the 
subject as plain as possible, and to show what the 
modern conception of electricity is. 158 Pages. Il- 
lustrated $1.00 

Sloane, How to Become a Successful Electrician : 

It is the ambition of thousands of young and old to 
become electrical engineers. Not every one is pre- 
pared to spend several thousand dollars upon a col- 
lege course, even if the three or four years requisite are 
at their disposal. It is possible to become an electrical 
engineer without this sacrifice, and this work is de- 
signed to tell "How to Become a Successful Electric- 
ian," without the outlay usually spent in acquiring the 
profession. Twelfth Edition. Revised and Enlarged. 
200 Pages. Illustrated. Cloth $1.00 

Sloane. Arithmetic of Electricity: 

A Practical Treatise on Electrical Calculations of 
all kinds, reduced to a series of rules, all of the sim- 
plest forms, and involving only ordinary arithmetic ; 
each rule illustrated by one or more practical prob- 
lems, with detailed solution of each one. Fourth Edi- 
tion. Illustrated. 138 Pages. Cloth $1.00 

Sloane. Electric Toy Making, Dynamo Building and 
Electric Motor Construction: 

This work treats of the making at home of Electrical 
Toys, Electrical Apparatus, Motors, Dynamos and In- 
struments in general, and is designed to bring within 
the reach of young and old the manufacture of genuine 
and useful electrical appliances. Third Edition. Fully 

Illustrated. 140 Pages. Cloth $1.00 

Sloane. Rubber Hand Stamps and the Manipulation 
of India Rubber: 

A practical treatise on the manufacture of all kinds 
of Rubber articles. 146 Pages. Second Edition. Cloth. $1.00 
Sloane. Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases : 

Containing the full theory of the subject, and giv- 
ing the entire history of liquefaction of gases, from the 
earliest times to the present. It shows how liquid air 
like water is carried hundreds of miles and is handled 
in open buckets. It tells what may be expected from 
it in the near future. 365 Pages, with many Illustra- 
tions. Handsomely bound in Buckram. Second Edi- 
tion $2.50 

Sloane. Standard Electrical Dictionary: 

A practical handbook of reference, containing defini- 
tions of about 5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. 
An entirely New Edition, brought up to date and great- 
ly enlarged. Complete, Concise. Convenient. 682 
Pages, 393 Illustrations. Handsomely bound in Cloth. 
8vo. ! $3.00 



NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 'S PUBLICATIONS. 



Usher. The Modern Machinist : 

A practical treatise embracing the most approved 
methods of modern machine-shop practice, and the ap- 
plications of recent improved appliances, tools and 
devices for facilitating, duplicating and expediting the 
construction of machines and their parts. A new book 
from cover to cover. Third Edition. 257 Engravings. 
322 Pages. Cloth $2.50 

Tan Dervoort. Modern Machine Shop Tools; Their 
Construction, Operation and Manipulation, Includ- 
ing Both Hand and Machine Toojs: 

A new work treating the subject in a concise and 
comprehensive manner. A chapter on Gearing and Belt- 
ing, covering the more important cases, also the Trans- 
mission of Power by Shafting with formulas and ex- 
amples is included. This book is strictly up-to-date 
and is the most complete, concise and useful work ever 
published on this subject. Containing 550 Pages and 
673 Illustrations $4.00 

AVoodworth. Dies, Their Construction and Use for 
the Modern Working of Sheet Metals: 

A treatise upon the designing, constructing and use of 
tools, fixtures and devices, together with the man 
ner in which they should be used in the power 
press for the cheap and rapid production of sheet metal 
parts and articles. Comprising fundamental designs 
and practical points by which sheet metal parts may 
be produced at the minimum of cost to the maximum of 
output, together with special reference to the harden- 
ing and tempering of press tools, and to the classes 
of work which may be produced to the best advantage 
by the use of dies in the power press. Containing 
400 Pages. 500 Illustrations $3.00 

Wood worth. Hardening, Tempering, Annealing and 
Forging of Steel : 

A new book containing special directions for the suc- 
cessful hardening and tempering of all steel tools. 
Milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid 
and shell, hollow mills, punches and dies and all 
kinds of sheet-metal working tools, shear blades, saws, 
fine cutlery.v an <l metal-cutting tools of all descriptions, 
as well as 'for all implements of steel, both large and 
small, the simplest and most satisfactory hardening 
and tempering processes are presented. The uses to 
which the leading brands of steel may be adapted 
are concisely presented, and their treatment for work- 
ing under different conditions explained, as are also 
the special methods for the hardening and tempering 
of special brands. Containing 28S Pages, about 201 
Illustrations $2.50 



just ^txbxjiskie:^. 

MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, 

POWERS, DEVICES, AND APPLIANCES. 

By GARDNER D. HISCOX. n.E., 

Author of "Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines.** 

8vo. Over 400 Pages. 1649 Illustrations; with Descriptive Text* 

PRICE $3.00. 

A dictionary of Mechanical Movements, Powers, Devices, and Appliances, with 
1649 illustrations and explanatory text. This is a new work on illustrated mechanics, 
mechanical movements, de.ices, and appliances, covering nearly the whole range 
of the practical and inventive field, for the use of Mechanics, Inventors, Engineers, 
Draughtsmen, and all persons interested in mechanical contrivances. 

SEICTZONS. 
Section I. Mechanical Powers.— Weights, Revolution of Forces, Pressures. 
Levers, Pulleys, Tackle, etc. 

Section II. Transmission of Power.— Ropes, Belts, Friction Gear, Spur, 
Bevel, and Screw Gear, etc. 

Section III. Measurement of Power.-Speed, Pressure, Weight, Numbers, 
Quantities, and Appliances. 

Section IV. Steam Power- Boilers and Adjuncts.— "Engines, Valves and 
Valve Gear, Parallel Motion Gear, Governors and Engine Devices, Rotary En- 
gines, Oscillating Engines. 

Section V. Steam Appliances.— Injectors, Steam Pumns, Condensers, Sepa- 
rators, Traps, and Valves. 

Section VI. Motive Power— Gas and Gasoline Engines.— Valve Gear 
and Appliances, Connecting Rods and Heads. 

Section VII. Hydraulic Power and Devices.— Water Wheels, Turbines. 
Governors, Impact Wheels, Pumps, Rotary Pumps, Siphons, Water Lifts, Eject- 
ors, Water Rams, Meters, Indicators, Pressure Regulators, Valves, Pipe Joints, 
Filters, etc. 

Section VIII. Air Power Appliances.— Wind Mills, Bellows, Blowers, Air 
Compressors, Compressed Air Tools, Motors, Air Water Lifts, Blow Pipes, etc. 

Section IX. Electric Power and Construction. -Generators, Motors, Wir- 
ing, Controlling and Measuring, Lighting, Electric Furnaces, Fans, Search Light 
and Electric Appliances. 

Section X. Navigation and Roads.— Vessels, Sails, Rope Knots, Paddle 
Wheels, Propellers, Road Scraper and Roller, Vehicles, Motor Carriages, Tricy- 
cles, Bicycles, and Motor Adjuncts. 

Section XI. Gearing.— Racks and Pinions, Spiral, Elliptical, and Worm Gear, 
Differential and Stop-Motion Gear, Epi cyclical and Planetary Trains, "Fer- 
guson's " Paradox. 

Section XII. Motion and Devices Controlling Motion.— Ratchets and 
Pawls, Cams, Cranks, Intermittent and Stop Motions, Wipers, Volute Cams, 
Variable Cranks, Universal Shaft Couplings, Gyroscope, etc. 

Section XIII. Horological.— Clock and Watch Movements and Devices. 

Section XIV. Mining.— Quarrying, Ventilation, Hoisting, Conveying, Pulver 
izing, Separating, Roasting, Excavating, and Dredging. 

Section XV. Mill and Factory Appliances.— Hangers, Shaft Bearings, Ball 
Bearings, Steps, Couplings, Universal and Flexible Couplings, Clutches, Speed 
Gears, Shop Tools, Screw Threads, Hoists, Machines, Textile Appliances, etc. 

Section XVI. Construction and Devices.— Mixing, Testing, Stump and Pile 
Pulling, Tackle Hooks, Pile Driving. Dumping Cars, Stone Grips, Derricks, Con- 
veyor, Timber Splicing, Roof and Bridge Trusses, Suspension Bridges. 

Section XVII. Draughting Devices.— Parallel Rules, Curve Delineators, 
Trammels, Ellipsographs, Pantographs, etc. 

Section XVIII. Miscellaneous Devices.— Animal Power, Sheep Shears, 
Movements and Devices. Elevators, Cranes, Sewing, Typewriting and Printing 
Machines, Railway Devices, Trucks, Brakes, Turntables, Locomotives, Gas, Gas 
Furnaces, Acetylene Generators, Gasoline Mantle Lamps, Fire Arms, etc. 

*** Prepaid to any address on receipt of price 
NORNIA]S[\V.^KINrLE:Y&CO.,Publx®hier% 

132 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK. 



MAR 28 1904 



